Exam 2 - psy1400

USU gregory madden; analysis behavior.

What’s the definition of antecedent?

an observable stimulus that is present **before** the behavior occurs

what’s the definition of a consequence?

observable stimulus change that happens **after** behavior occurs

a **consequence** occurs _______ a behavior

after

An **antecedent** occurs ________ a behavior

before

What is the response-consequence contingency?

describes the causal (IF → THEN) relation between operant behavior and its consequence

What is a contingent reinforcement?

delivered following the occurrence of the target response

What is a noncontingent reinforcement?

* delivered independently from response
* usually via time based schedule

if reinforcement is given contingently, response rates will…

go up, increase

if reinforcement is changed and now its delivered non-contingently, response rates will…

not increase, stay the same

What is superstitious behavior?

occurs when the individual behaves as though a response–consequence contingency exists when the relation between response and consequence is **noncontingent**

Define reinforcement…

**process or procedure** whereby a reinforcer **increases** operant behavior above its baseline level

define reinforcer…

a **consequence** that **increases** operant behavior above its baseline level

define reward…

beneficial consequences that we think will function as reinforcers, but we don’t know yet if they will

Who discovered Reinforcement?

Edward L. Thorndike

Define operant behavior

a generic class of responses influenced by antecedents, with each response in the class producing the same consequence

What’s an everyday example of reinforcement?

clapping

cheering

giving a high five, thumbs up

gaming

What’s an everyday **non**-example of reinforcement?

training a dog, them losing focus

Recognize the Reinforcement flowchart

What role does exploration play in operant behavior?

* response variability when exposed to something new (trial and error)
* moves to exploitation when you find an efficient way to do something and don't ever change
* can lead to finding reinforcers and consistently doing behavior

Define positive reinforcement

The presentation of a consequence, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level

Which goes along with positive reinforcement -

SR+, SRE-, or SRA-?

SR+

Which goes along with negative reinforcement - (two answers)

SR+, SRE-, or SRA-?

SRE- & SRA-

Define negative reinforcement SRE- (escape variety)

consequent **removal** **or reduction** of a stimulus, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level

Define negative reinforcement SRA- (avoidance variety)

consequent **prevention** of a stimulus change, the effect of which is to increase operant behavior above its no-reinforcer baseline level

Why’s it important to distinguish between positive and negative reinforcers?

heuristics

loss aversion

preference for positive reinforcement

Know options when it’s time to positively influence behavior (consequences)

consequences can be:

* presented
* removed/reduced
* prevented

Define loss aversion

* The tendency for loss prevention (SRA−) to influence behavior more than presentation of the same stimulus (SR+)
* People are less likely to do behavior if it means they’ll lose something, even if they could gain something

Why do people prefer positive reinforcement?

people are happier with interventions in which they can earn something (SR+) rather than avoiding something

What are 3 objections to using reinforcement?

1. Intrinsic Motivation
2. Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement
3. Cheating

Define intrinsic motivation

the natural drive to engage in a behavior because it fosters a sense of competence

define extrinsic reinforcer

* those reinforcers that are not automatically obtained by engaging in the behavior
* instead, they are artificially arranged

Do extrinsic reinforcers decrease intrinsic motivation?

No, they do not decrease

What goes along with performance-inhibiting properties of reinforcement?

Two answers

* “choking under pressure”
* reinforcers reduce creativity

Does reinforcement inhibit creativity and cause people to choke under pressure?

* if reward is at stake, creativity can be limited to meet others’ expectations
* with too high of reward, people can choke under pressure - they fail to meet what they could normally

Does reinforcement increase probability of cheating?

if it can produce positive reinforcer easier, some will succumb

What are the 2 theories of reinforcement?

* Response Strengthening Theory
* Information Theory

What does response strengthening theory say?

* frequency of behavior is followed by reinforcer
* more firmly its established, the harder it’ll be to disrupt

what does the information theory say?

* agrees that reinforcers increase operant behavior above a baseline level, but it disagrees about how this happens
* allows us to predict when/where subsequent reinforcers may be obtained

define operant extinction

Responding that meets the reinforcement contingency no longer produces the reinforcer and, as a result, it falls to baseline levels

How does operate extinction apply to positive reinforcement?

when positive reinforcement is removed, behavior returns to baseline level

How does operant extinction apply to negative reinforcement?

* when negative reinforcement is removed, behavior returns to baseline level (SRE- & SRA-)
* (if pushing a button doesnt stop noise, eventually well stop pushing it)

define escape extinction

* Responding that meets the negative reinforcement contingency, no longer removes or reduces the aversive event
* As a result, responding decreases to baseline levels

What’s the partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE)?

What does it allow us to predict?

* direct relation between prior reinforcement rate and how quickly behavior undergoes extinction
* (ex: when highly reinforced before extinction (reinforced every time), then extinction will be faster)

What effect does motivation have on operant extinction?

* if motivation is higher, the reinforcer will be needed less
* if highly motivated, will continue the behavior even when it doesn't work (e.g., keep trying to start the car)

What’s spontaneous recovery of operant extinction?

temporary resumption in responding following time away from the extinction session

What are the primary effects of operant extinction?

returning to baseline levels

What are the secondary (other) effects of operant extinction?

1. extinction-induced emotional behavior
2. extinction burst
3. extinction-induced variability
4. extinction-induced resurgence

define extinction-induced emotional behavior

shift in emotions following extinction (usually negative)

define extinction burst

temporary increase in the rate, magnitude, or duration of the previously reinforced response

define extinction-induced variability

increase in the variety of operant response topographies following extinction

define extinction-induced resurgence

* when one operant behavior is extinguished, other (different) behaviors that were previously reinforced are emitted again
* Ex: bully figures out your regular route home, you avoid that route, then a while later you resume that route

Define functional analysis of behavior

the scientific method used to:


1. determine if a problem behavior is an operant
2. identify the reinforcer that maintains that operant (alternating treatments)
3. develop an intervention (can we eliminate the reinforcement?)

Why do we use functional analysis?

to determine whether or not the consequence functions as a reinforcer (operant, automatic) *or* that the behavior isn't operant

define automatic reinforcer

consequence that is directly produced by the response - it is not provided by someone else - and which increases the behavior above a baseline level

define differential reinforcement

procedure in which a previously reinforced behavior is placed on extinction while a second behavior is reinforced

define differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DHA)

* "something else" that’s being reinforced is incompatible with the problem behavior
* can't be done at the same time

Define differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI)

reinforced response can be any adaptive behavior (doesn't have to be incompatible)

define differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

* reinforcement is provided contingent upon abstaining from the problem behavior for a specified interval of time
* can be gradually modified to require longer intervals

Define differential reinforcement of variability

responses (or patterns) that haven't been emitted, ever or in a long time, that are reinforced and recent response topographies are extinguished

define differential reinforcement of high-rate behavior (DRH)

* low-rate responding is put on extinction and high-rate responding is reinforced
* ex: 5-second rule game - learn to respond faster and not slower

define differential reinforcement of low-rate behavior (DRL)

* high-rate responding is put on extinction and low-rate responding is reinforced
* ex: thanking someone for talking slower so you can understand them

define functional communication training

problematic demands for attention (ex: tantruming) are extinguished while appropriate requests (ex: "will you play with me please") are established and reinforced

define primary reinforcer

* consequence that functions as a reinforcer because it is important in sustaining the life of the individual or the continuation of the species
* (ex: food, water, escape, etc)

define conditioned reinforcer

consequences that function as reinforcers only after learning occurs

2 ways an individual can learn the relation between: conditioned reinforcer and backup reinforcer

1. Pavlovian learning; learning via association, if action then consequence
2. through verbal learning; information provided indicating that the reinforcer signals a delay reduction to another reinforcer

define token economy

set of rules governing the delivery of response-contingent conditioned reinforcers (tokens, points, etc.) that may be later exchanged for one or more backup reinforcers

define backup reinforcer

the reinforcer provided after the conditioned reinforcer signals the delay reduction to its delivery

attractive features of token economies:

* motivationally robust
* nondisruptive
* fair compensation
* portability
* delay-bridging

What is the good behavior game?

type of behavior management used to increase physical activity and improve academic performance (specifically in schools)

What is the first principle of conditioned reinforcement?

* use of an effective backup reinforcer
* ex: token for ice cream vs token for concert admission

What’s the second principle of conditioned reinforcement?

* use of a salient conditioned reinforcer
* ex: something that stands out or is unique; clickers in dog training, having a child put the token in their own piggy bank instead of the parent doing it

What’s the third principle of conditioned reinforcement

* use of a conditioned reinforcer that signals a large delay reduction to the backup reinforcer
* the bigger the delay reduction to the BR, the more effective the CR will be

What’s the fourth principle of conditioned reinforcement?

* make sure the conditioned reinforcer is not redundant
* want the conditioned reinforcer to be the only stimulus signaling a delay reduction to the backup reinforcer

use delay-reduction ratio to evaluate efficacy of conditioned reinforcer

* US --> US interval/
* CS --> US interval
* if bigger, it’s more effective

define generalized conditioned reinforcer

* when a conditioned reinforcer is paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers
* when a conditioned reinforcer signals a delay reduction to more than one backup reinforcer

define marking

conditioned reinforcer immediately follows the response, and this helps the individual learn which response produced the backup reinforcer

what’s marker clicker-training?

use clicker to make brief sound indicating which behavior was good and then treat after

define shaping

differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior

what are the principles of effective shaping?

(6 principles)

1. objectively define the terminal behavior
2. evaluate what the novice can currently do and how that falls short
3. advice for setting the reinforcement contingencies (should be challenging but not too much)
4. differential reinforcement (reinforcing one response and extinguishing another)
5. ensure the learner has mastered the current phase approximation before moving to the next one
6. lower the criterion for reinforcement if current sequence is too difficult

define percentile schedule of reinforcement

a simple automated training technique incorporating the six principles of effective shaping

define flow

a state in which one feels immersed in a rewarding activity and in which we lose track of time and self