AP Psychology (2024-2025) - Unit 3 - Development and Learning

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior.

Associative Learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response

Unconditioned response

naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned response

the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Acquisition

the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus Generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

Changing a learned response to something that is more pleasant by pairing it with a more calming thought

Taste Aversion

A learned associated between the way a good tatstes and being sick after one instance

one-trial conditioning

Learning that happens after two stimuli are paired only once

Biological Preparedness

In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to quickly form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

The Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different situations where reinforcement is provided.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of some desirable stimulus to strengthen behavior (i.e. treat after desired behavior).

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock or an annoying car beeping.

Punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Positive Punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

Negative Punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Instinctive Drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

Superstitious Behavior

a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Scalloped Pattern

illustrates how anticipating reinforcement influences response timing, with subjects optimizing their efforts towards the specific point of reinforcement

learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)

A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control. Leads to decreased effort

social learning theory (Albert Bandura)

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. "Monkey see, monkey do."

Vicarious Conditioning

learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action

Insight Learning (Wolfgang Kohler)

Suddenly understanding the solution to a problem without trial and error.

Latent Learning (Edward Tolman)

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to reinforce it

Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of the spatial layouts of places that allow people to navigate environments