STM 008 M1-M12

alleles

pairs of genes are called?

Trait

any characteristic that can be passed from

parent to offspring

Heredity

passing of traits from parent to offspring

Genetics

study of heredity

Genes

a hereditary unit consisting of DNA that

occupies a spot on a chromosome and determines a

characteristic in an organism.

Monohybrid cross

- cross involving a single trait

e.g. flower color

Dihybrid cross

- cross involving two traits

e.g. flower color & plant height

Alleles

two forms of a gene (dominant & recessive)

Dominant

stronger of two genes expressed in the

hybrid; represented by a capital letter (R)

Recessive

gene that shows up less often in a cross;

represented by a lowercase letter (r)

Genotype

gene combination for a trait (ex. RR, Rr, rr)

Homozygous genotype

gene combination involving 2

dominant or 2 recessive genes (ex. RR or rr); also called

pure

Heterozygous genotype

gene combination of one dominant

& one recessive allele (ex. Rr); also called hybrid

Gregor mendel

a humble monk and part time scientist

law of dominance

in a cross of parents that are pure for contrastic traits, online one form of the traid will appear in the next generation.

when two alleles are present, only one dominant and will be expressed

LAW OF SEGREGATION

During the formation of

gametes (eggs or sperm),

the two alleles

responsible for a trait

separate from each other.

Alleles for a trait are then

"recombined" at

fertilization, producing

the genotype for the

traits of the offspring.

two alleles are each gene are placed in different gametes.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

states that the alleles of two (or

more) different genes get sorted

into gametes independently of

one another. In other words, the

allele a gamete receives for one

gene does not influence the

allele received for another gene.

DIHYBRID CROSS

the inheritance of one gene doesn't affect the inheritance of any other gene.

Dominance or Recessiveness.

Mendelian Genetics describes inheritance patterns based on

NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS

•CODOMINANCE

•INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

•MULTIPLE ALLELES

CO-DOMINANCE

•Both traits are dominant, and show up in the phenotype together. Co means "together"

•both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote.

like spotted cow

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

The hybrid (heterozygous) offspring displays a THIRD Phenotype!! Neither trait is completely dominant, as a result, there appears to be a blending phenotype.

example red and white flower created a pink flower.

MULTIPLE ALLELES

•When more than two different form of given gene exist in a species they are called as multiple allele"

•Multiple alleles always influence the same character.

•more than 2 alleles for that trait must exist in the population.

•Examples of Multiple Alleles

•a) Blood group (ABO) in human.

•b) Coat color in mice.

•c) Coat color in rabbit.

POLYGENIC TRAIT

Require more than one gene (allele) to determine trait.

Skin tone is determined by 4-6 genes—that means that there may be six different chromosomes involved!

Recombination

referes to the exchange of alleles

In meiosis results to variation in the genome of gametes; rhe sperm cells and egg cells.

The result is sex linked trait.

recombinants

recombination results in new combinations of parent characteristics in the off spring they are called?

X and Y chromosomes

What do you call the sex chromosome?

X linked trait

Is a sex linked trait where the gene or allele for the trait is found on the X chromosome.

Y linked trait

Is a sex linked trait where the gene or allele or found in the Y chromosome

Color blindness and Hemophilia

Effects of X linked recessive trait

Females and only carriers? Male is the most affected one.

Remember

Hypertrichoeis Pinnae Auris

Effects of Y linked

1,098 human X linked genes

Most of them code for something other than female anatomica traits.

Queen victoria of Englang

Was a carrier of the gene for hemophilia.

Sex linked inheritance

some traits are located on the sex chromosomes, so the inheritance of these traits depends on the sex of the parent carrying the trait

Sex determination

is determined by the sex chromosomes contributed to the zygote by the sperm and the egg

an egg can donate an x, a sperm can donate X or Y

Sex linked

carried on the x chromosome. this is probably because of the X chromosome is much larger than Y chromosome.

Male pattern baldness,

red-green color blindness

(people with

deuteranomaly and protanomaly),

myopia,

night blindness

hemophilia

EXAMPLES OF SEX-LINKED TRAITS and DISORDERS

MEN! Genes for certain traits are on the X

chromosome only...

Who is usually affected by Sex-Linked Disorders?

Pisium sativum

Mendel's experimental material was?

Variation

tendency of offspring to differ from parents is called?

Phenotype

refers to the actual appearance of an individual

Color

allele

one of several forms of gene

•a form of a gene which codes for one possible outcome of a phenotype

punnett square

use to predict the genotype of alleic combinationg

law of dominance

law of segregation

law of independent assortment

three laws of gregor mendel

dominant trait

law of dominance

one of the traits will always suppress the other, thereby expressing itself

recessive trait

it is the suppressed trait

law of segregation

two alleles to form a gamete, which is mother and father

Homozygous dominant

two capital letters

Homozygous recessive

two small letters

DIHYBRID CROSS

a cross between two parents that differ by two pairs of alleles (AABB x aabb)

Dihybrid

An individual that is heterozygous for two pairs of alleles

Central dogma (1958)

Is the process by which the instructions in DNa are converted into a functional product.

What year too?

Francis Crick

Who discovered the structure of DNA?

Transcription and Translation

Gene expression has two stages

Gene expression

Process which DNA instructions are converted into the functional product is called?

Two allele

An individual inherits two allele

Multiple alleles

Have multiple (more than two) alleles, an example is ABO blood type in humans

Polygenic Characteristics

Are controlled by more than one gene.

Reconv

Cellular structure
Heredity
Homeostasis
Movement
Adaptation
Growth
Reproduction
Respond to stimuli

what does chhomagrr stands for?

Apoptasis

Lysosome Suicide bomb

Heredity

Traits that are passed down through a family.

traits, disease, gene

Homeostasis

sweat perspiration

Glucagon

What balances low sugar

Insulin

when blood sugars are high, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin helps cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream, lowering blood sugar levels.

movement

releases toxin like urine and weat
helps with locomotion
to reproduce

Adaptation

irritability - response to environmental change in order to adapt

growth

maturity goes thru various stages in order to mature

Reproduction

asexual -
sexual

Fragmentation (Starfish)

An organism breaks into pieces, and each piece grows into a new organism.

Regeneration

The process of regrowing lost or damaged body parts.

Planarians can regenerate their entire body from a small fragment.

starfish also experience this, it regenerates too

Budding (hydra)

A new organism grows from a bud on the parent organism.

Binary Fission (Bacteria)

single organism divides into two identical organisms.

Respond to stimuli

It refers to the ability to detect and react to changes in the environment

sphorophyte

organism that produces spores

gametophyte

sperm or egg cell or known as gametes

Parthenogenesis

is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into an organism without being fertilized by a sperm.

exmaple is wasps, ants, bees

autotrophic

organisms that can produce their own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

Example:
Plants: They use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into energy, producing their own food. glucise and oxygen

Algae: Similar to plants, algae also perform photosynthesis to create their own food.

Photoautotrophs Plants

are organisms that can produce their own food using light energy through the process of photosynthesis. T=

Villi

absorb nutrients from digested food as it passes through the small intestine. The nutrients then enter the bloodstream and are transported to various parts of the body for use.

Thermophiles

are microorganisms that thrive in extremely hot environments

Chemoautotrophs

e organisms that obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, or iron, and use this energy to fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds. They do not rely on sunlight for energy, unlike photoautotrophs.

Extremophiles

re organisms that thrive in extreme environmental conditions that are typically hostile to most life forms. These conditions can include extreme temperatures, acidity, salinity, or pressure.

small intestine

absorbs nutrients

Xerophytes (cactus)

plants IN DESERT

saprophytic fungi

organisms obtain nutrients by decomposing dead and decaying organic matter.

Holozoic

organisms ingest solid food, which is then digested internally. This mode of nutrition involves several stages: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, and egestion.

parasitic

refers to a relationship where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, and benefits at the host's expense.

plants absorbs nutrients thru roots

did you know

xylem

Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves. Moves in one direction (upwards).

Phloem

Transports sugars and nutrients throughout the plant. Moves in both directions (up and down).

plant stem

negative tropism

plant roots

postive tropism

atom
molecule
organelle
cell
tissues
organs
organ system
organism
population
community
ecosystem
biosphere

levels of organization

Aerotaxis

follows aroma thru air

Phototaxis

moth, night insects for navigation