Survey of World History EXAM 2

Indulgences

Old Catholic concept; paid items that acted as guaranteed tickets to Heaven, bypassing faith and works.

Ninety-Five Theses

Document by Martin Luther, of which was nailed to the Catholic Church. Addressed the Christian nobility of Germany, containing 95 critiques of the church; intended to prove why the Catholic Church wasn’t legitimate and why Germany should split from it.

Martin Luther

German, Christian monk. Known for protesting against the Catholic Church, claiming salvation is delivered via faith alone.

Original English Catholic Beliefs

Salvation reached via faith AND good works, truth based on Bible AND Catholic Church traditions, Latin Mass, Celibate Priests, Indulgences, led by Pope.

Original English Lutheran Beliefs

Salvation reached via faith alone, truth based on Bible alone, Vernacular Mass, Ministers (marriage allowed), no Indulgences, not led by a Pope.

Pope Leo X

Pope of the Catholic Church when Martin Luther started the Protestant movement. Condemned Luther’s 95 Theses and issues a counter-document in response.

Exsurge Domine

Document that the Catholic Church made under Pope Leo X in response to the 95 Theses’. Brought up 41 counter points against Luther’s critiques. Luther would end up publicly burning this document.

Diet of Worms

Congressional hearing with the Catholic Church and Martin Luther, overseen by Charles V. Luther refuses to recant and is excommunicated. Luther is then taken in and protected by Frederick the Wise.

Excommunication

To be cast away from the church, seen as an enemy, and no longer allowed to associate or show your face to the church.

Frederick the Wise

Saxon ruler that took in Luther following Luther’s excommunication. During this period, Luther translates the Bible into German so the German people may read it.

Protestantism

Large sect of Christianity specifically opposing the Catholic Church, adopting many of Luther’s opinions alongside relying heavily on Biblical truths and sidelining worldly views. Eventually split into even smaller sects due to theological differences.

Geneva

City in Switzerland that became the center of Protestantism.

Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss Christian theologist that emphasized Biblical truths and the rejection of worldly traditions infiltrating said truths. If an idea was not directly stated in the Bible, it should not be considered as truth.

Anabaptists

Sect of Protestantism Christianity that believed only adults can have legitimate baptisms. They also believed in a separation of the church and state, alongside believing in strict pacifism.

Charles V

Current Holy Roman Emperor during the Diet of Worms, alongside the one who oversaw it as the representative of the Catholic church.

English Reformation

England’s Protestant reformation, of which shifted the nation’s religion towards that of Protestant Christianity from Catholic Christianity. Primarily pioneered by Henry VIII, although for more selfish reasons rather than faithful ones.

Henry VIII

An English King that lived a life focused on receiving a male heir, remarrying numerous times in an attempt to achieve this. He used Protestantism in order to regularize divorce in order to achieve his goals, though indirectly shifted England away from Catholicism in the process.

Catherine of Argon

Henry VIII’s first wife, who had 6 children. Only 1 survived however, that being Mary. Henry would try to divorce her in search of a male heir, but the Catholic Church would refuse this. In response, Henry would pull strings in the Catholic Church before ushering Protestantism into England in order to get what he wanted.

Thomas Cranmer

Archbishop of Canterbury; the man who Henry VIII bribed in order to legitimize his divorce with Catherine, of which was successful.

Anne Boleyn

Henry VIII’s mistress during his marriage with Catherine, born from his desire for a male heir, and eventual second wife. After divorcing Catherine, Henry would marry her. Unfortunately, she had 3 miscarriages, which pushed Henry to find yet another wife, but she refused. In order to end the marriage, Henry would thrown faulty charges of adultery and end up beheading her.

Jane Seymour

Henry VIII’s third wife, and the woman to bring Henry his male heir: Edward. Sadly, she would die to complications during childbirth. Henry would go on to marry three more times, though never receiving another child in the process.

Edward VI

Henry VIII and Jane Seymour’s son, the ever-so-desired male heir. He would take temporary reigns at the age 9 following Henry’s death. Unlike his father, he truly believed in Protestant Christianity, and would end up solidifying its presence in England during his rule. Unfortunately, he did this via executing Catholics.

Mary I

Henry VIII and Catherine’s daughter, alongside the intended heir to temporary king Edward VI. Unfortunately, Edward would refuse the throne to her, instead giving it to his cousin. Despite this, she would still end up in the English Throne following the cousin’s rule thanks to her relations.

Jane Grey

Cousin of Edward VI and his chosen heir. The throne would end up going to Mary I despite Edward’s wishes.

Phillip of Spain

Mary I’s husband, and the primary reason she gained the English throne

“Bloody Mary”

Infamous nickname, gained by her executions of Protestants (likely a response to Edward’s ways) in order to revert England to Catholicism.

Elizabeth I

The resulting heir to Mary I due to Mary’s lack of male heirs. She would end up bringing Protestantism back into England, though once again done via bloodshed. She would imprison an important Catholic figure before executing her. Reigned for 44 years; the ruler who turned England into a super power.

Mary, Queen of Scots

Cousin of Elizabeth I and the Catholic figure imprisoned and then executed.

John Calvin

Protestant Christian theologist who first tokened predestination and pushed for the removal of icons & idols in the church. Also wrote a famous theological book.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Crucial title written by John Calvin that majorly represented a majority of the Protestant reformation. Detailed the ideas of the faith, its issues with Catholicism, alongside some of Calvin’s personal ideas.

Predestination

Calvinist concept regarding God’s selection of all that will enter Heaven and Hell before their creation, emphasizing the “Elect”, or God’s chosen.

John Knox

Scottish Presbyterian who studied under John Calvin. Forms the Dutch Reformed Church, accepting the currently-excommunicated French Huguenots. Spread to Denmark and Scandinavia.

Huguenots

French Protestants who held to the Calvinist tradition of Protestantism and were subsequently excommunicated by their French fellows.

Counter-Reformation

A Catholic response to the Protestant revolution, characterized by persecution and inquisition.

Trent

Meeting of Catholic leaders to redetermine Catholic tradition following the Protestant Christian Reformation. Following this meeting, it was determined that a majority of traditional Catholic doctrine would remain. The only exclusions were an end to the selling of indulgences alongside a new seminary training service intended for all Catholic priests.

Jesuits

Sect of Catholic Christianity founded by Ignatius of Loyola, though some Protestant concepts are included. Focused on self-sacrifice and unwavering obedience to God, but famously characterized by its intense push for education and the beginning of missions.

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Event

Sudden, catastrophic event led by King Charles IX, who feared a meeting and possible revolt by the French Huguenots. In response, Charles IX would sent men out to drag out and kill Huguenots on the streets.

Spanish Armada

A religiously-motivated military invasion by Spain into England, who have been angered by the Holland Revolt and the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. England is victorious over this confrontation, and marks the beginning of the power shift from Spain to England.

Thirty Years War

Intensely deadly religious war, resulting in the deaths of a catastrophic 8 million people. During the war, Europe fell into a period of famine & disease, resulting in many more deaths outside of battles.

Westphobia

Treaty that ended the Thirty Years War, solving the problem by allowing rulers to simply decide what religion should be followed in their countries; a band-aid fix.

Witch Hunts

Period of paranoia started by the release of Malleus Malefic Arum, of which detailed what these being were, their evils, and what should be done to stop them. As a result of this information spreading, numerous people went out to find these and kill them, determining that the terrible events of the Thirty Year War were due to them.

Geocentric Theory

Scientific theory that claims the Earth is the center of the universe, and that the Sun and Moon rotate around it.

Ptolemy

Egyptian astronomer that coined the Geocentric theory using mathematical equations to back it up. The other side of the argument was philosophically backed by Aristotle.

Nicholas Copernicus

Polish monk & astronomer who coined the Heliocentric Theory, which was highly controversial due to theological arguments by the Catholic Church, lack of explanation for gravity, and lack of telescopes to prove it.

Heliocentric Theory

Scientific theory that claims the Sun is the center of the universe, and that the Earth and all other planets revolve around it. Also suggested the Moon rotates specifically around the Earth.

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Book by Nicholas Copernicus, containing his unique theory of Heliocentrism and reasonings behind its legitimacy.

Galileo Gallei

Italian astronomer best known for mastering the telescope. Discovers craters on the moon, numerous stars, four moons of Jupiter, and sunspots, alongside numerous other discoveries that suggested Heliocentrism was true. Would end up being called a heretic by the Catholic Church, spending the rest of his life under house arrest.

Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems

Book written by Galileo Gallei that discussed and compared Heliocentrism and Geocentrism.

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and psychist that coined the laws of motion & concept of gravity. Also claimed the universe follows mathematical laws.

Principia Mathematica

Book by Newton that discussed his theories. In here, the theories of classical mechanics, universal gravitation, and three laws of motion were coined.

Francis Bacon

English lawyer & politician who questioned common beliefs in an effort to improve mankind as a whole. Came up with the modern scientific method.

Novum Organum

Second half to Bacon’s Instauratio Magna, his magnum opus title, which laid down the foundations for the modern scientific method.

Empiricism

Philosophical concept coined by Bacon that claims rue knowledge or justification comes from the senses and empirical evidence rather than from ideas, reason, or intuition.

Rene Descartes

French mathematician who coined the idea of separation between science and religion, claiming math is the key to measuring new science, not religion.

Discourse on Method

Book by Descartes discussing the modern rationalist theory alongside adding development to the scientific method.

Thomas Hobbes

English political philosopher who claimed the natural state of nature is war, that humans are selfish and violent by nature, and that only an Authoritarian government can properly handle humanity (sound familiar?).

Leviathan

Book by Hobbes that coined the social contract theory, an idea that humans must surrender natural freedoms to a greater force in order to keep peace and harmony.

Charles Montesquieu

French political philosopher who called for checks & balances in government, claimed no single form of government was the best, and that the best form of government depending on a nation’s size, traditions, religion, and economy.

Spirit of Laws

Book by Monstesquieu sharing the concept of separated powers alongside other influential political theory.

Deism

Unique sect of Christianity that suggests the religion is natural & rational and devoid of supernaturality. It claims the universe developed naturally after God’s initial creation, and that the best way to worship God is by observing nature, not through organized church.

John Toland

Irish rationalist philosopher; the very first man called “freethinker”, and is responsible for Deism.

Denis Diderot

French philosopher, writer, and art critic, alongside the one responsible for the first ever Encyclopedia.

Encyclopedie

The first ever Encyclopedia. Shared heavy amounts of information, including farming, shipping, arts, astronomy, and politics. It was aimed to secularize education to assist the learning process of mankind.

Voltaire

French philosopher who called for freedom of religion & freedom of speech. Also promoted the separation of state and church.

Treatise on Toleration

Book by Voltaire that discussed numerous of his ideas, those being freedom of conscience, religious toleration, and civil liberties. It was written in response to the execution of Jean Calas, a French protestant merchant tortured for the alleged murder of his son.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer who suggested problems are the result of unequal distribution of wealth. He also claimed society is more important than the individual, and that people were indeed naturally good & honest.

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

Book by Rousseau that discussed the roots of social inequality and the corrupting influence of civilization on the human nature.

Social Contract

Philosophical concept regarding that all individuals consent to surrendering some freedoms to an authority in exchange for the protection of their rights and a social order.

Adam Smith

Scottish philosopher who coined the idea of free trade over mercantilism alongside the concept of the naturality of supply & demand.

Wealth of the Nations

Book by Smith that established the field of modern economics and political economy.

Laissez-faire

Political concept advocating against government intervention in business and market affairs, stating the economy functions best when left independent.

Aztlan

Mythical, ancestral home of the Aztecs.

Aztecs

Mesoamerican civilization that dominated central Mexico. Also known as the Mexica or Tenochca.

Huitzilopochtl

Aztec protector god.

Huit’s Commandment

Aztecs much search for promised land, omen marks end of journey.

Huit’s Omen

Bird standing on top of cactus eating a snake.

Tenochtitlan

Aztec capital. Surrounded by a massive, all-encompassing moat, much like a mini island.

Texcoco Lake

The location of Tenochtitlan.

Chinampas

Floating gardens. Used to grow maize, fruits, and veggies without taking up land.

Quetzalcoatl

Aztec creation and corn god.

Tonatiuh

Aztec sun god.

Tlaloc

Aztec rain god.

Aristocracy - Aztec Class rank

First; highest.

Warriors - Aztec Class rank

Second.

Merchants & Artisans - Aztec Class rank

Third.

Farmers - Aztec Class rank

Fourth; not viewed lowly.

Slaves - Aztec Class rank

Fifth; lowest.

Aztec class system

Classical, but most intriguingly, not rigid / locked.

Shaman

Spiritual practitioner (usually a woman) who acts as an intermediary between human and spirit world; very wealthy.

Nahuatl

Aztec written & oral language, used a glyph system. Primarily used for recording via unique numbers.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador that conquered the Aztecs.

Montezuma

Aztec leader that ruled the Aztecs before being conquered by Cortes.

La Malinche

An Aztec woman with Mayan descent, acted as a translator between the Spanish and Aztecs. Cortez would end up marrying her.

Columbian Exchange

Triangular trading systems between the Old World and New World.

Death Count of New World diseases

50% of natives, 75% of Mexico / Hispaniola, effectively 1/5 of world.

Inca Empire

Indigenous Southern American people living in the mountains.

Mitma

Incan concept of mass migration.

Tahuantin-suyu

Title for the Incan Empire; known as the “Realm of the Four Parts”, or “Land of Four Quarters”.

Cuzco

Incan capital.

Chasqui

Incan messenger people of highly elite runners, ran 80-100 miles a day in sandals within a low oxygen environment (crazy).