History of World Societies FIRST EXAM (Mortenson)

Homo Erectus

an extinct species of early human that lived approximately 1.9 million to 110,000 years ago

Homo Erectus significance

they were one of the first humans to use fire, create complex tools, and migrate out of Africa, marking key developments in human evolution

Macedonia

an ancient kingdom located in the northern Greek peninsula

Macedonia significance

Macedonia united Greece and launched expansive military campaigns that spread Greek culture under King Philips II rule

Alexander the Great

King of Macedonia from 336-323 BC, famous for creating one of the largest empires in history

Alexander the Great significance

his conquests spread Greek culture across three continents

Battle of Issus

a decisive battle in 333 BC where Alexander the Great defeated Persian King Darius III

Battle of Issus significance

the victory at Issus was crucial for Alexander's conquest of Persia, weakening Persian control and opening the way for further Hellenistic expansion

Hellenistic Kingdoms

successor states established after Alexander's empire

Hellenistic Kingdoms significance

these kingdoms preserved and spread Greek culture while blending it with local traditions shaping Mediterranean and Eastern civilizations

Latium

a region in central Italy, home early Romans and the city of Rome

Latium signifcance

Latium was the cultural and geographic foundation of the Roman civilization

Etruscans

an ancient civilization in Italy predating Rome, known for advanced engineering and art

Etruscans significance

the Etruscans influenced early Roman culture, including, religion, architecture, and urban planning

Roman Republic v. Empire

The Republic was a period of elected governance with checks and balances, the Empire was an autocratic regime under emperors

Republic v. Empire significance

the transition marked Rome's shift form a participatory government to centralized imperial rule, influencing the political evolution of Western civilization

Architecture

the art and science of designing building and structures

Architecture significance

Roman architecture introduced innovations like the arch, vault, and concrete, shaping urban development

City-states

independent, self-governing cities that controlled surrounding territories, common in Ancient Greece and Italy

city-states significance

they were centers of political experimentation, culture, and military innovation, contributing tooo Western political thought

Punic Wars

a series of three wars between Rome and Cartage for control over the western Mediterraneans

Punic wars significance

Rome's victory established it as the dominant Mediterranean power and led to the destruction of Carthage

Phalanx

a military formation of heavily armed infantry standing shoulder to shoulder in rows

Phalanx significance

the phalanx was key to Greek military success, especially for city-states like Macedonia under Philip II and Alexander

Cleopatra

the last active ruler of Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt (69-30BC)

Cleopatra significance

Cleopatra's alliances with Rome's Julius Caesar and Mark Antony play a major role in Roman politics and the end of Hellenistic Egypt

Republicanism

a political philosophy favoring a government in which power resides in elected individuals representing the citizen body

REpublicanism significance

influenced modern democratic systems by promoting ideas of citizenship, checks on power, and civic duty

The Athenian Assembly

a governing body in ancient Athens where citizens voted on laws and policy

Athenian Assembly significance

it was a foundation of direct democracy and an early model for citizen participation in government

Han and Roman trade

trade networks linking the Han Dynasty of China and the Roman Empire, primarily through the Silk Road

Han and Roman trade significance

these interactions facilitated cultural exchange and the flow of good like silk, spices, and precious metals across Eurasia

Diocletian and Constantine

roman emperors who reformed and centralized the empire, Diocletian divided the empire into East and West, Constantine established Constantinople

Diocletian and Constantine significance

their reforms prolonged the empire's life and shaped the transition to the Byzantine era and Christianization of Rome

more Centralized societies

societies with strong centralized authority controlling large territories

More Centralized Societies significance

centralization helped maintain order, implement laws, and mobilize resources in large empires such as Rome and Han China

Cairo and Alexandria

major cities in Egypt, with Alexandria founded by Alexander the Great and Cairo later becoming the capital of Egypt

Cairo and Alexandria significance

both cities were centers of commerce, learning, and culture in their respective periods

Nubia

a region south of Egypt, along the Nile in modern Sudan, home to powerful kingdoms like Kush

Nubia significance

Nubia interacted extensively with Egypt, influencing trade, culture, and military affairs

Axum and Ethiopia

kingdoms in East Africa, with Axum known for trade and early Christianity

Axum and Ethiopia significance

Axum was a major trading empire and cultural center, serving as a link between Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean

Swahili

a coastal East African culture and language formed by the blending of Bantu, Arab, and Persian influences

Swahili significance

the Swahili city-states were crucial hubs of Indian Ocean trade and cultural exchange

Mali

a powerful west African empire known for wealth, trade and learning centers like Timbuktu

Mali significance

played a key role in trans-Saharan trade and the spread of Islam in Africa

Kongo

a Central African kingdom that engaged in trade and had early contact with Europeans

Kongo significance

the Kongo Kingdom illustrates African political organization and cultural exchange during the early modern period

Agricultural Technology/Weapons Technology "Races"

technological "races" refer to periods when different societies competed or progressed rapidly in agriculture or military technology

Agricultural tech/Weapons Tech "Races" significance

these advances determined the power and survival of civilizations. societies adopted iron weapons or advanced irrigation had huge advantages

Atlatls

a spear throwing tool used to increase the speed and distance of thrown projectiles

Atlatls significance

gave early humans and hunter-gatherers a significant edge in hunting before the bow and arrow , shows early technological innovation in weaponry

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within a specific social group, caste, or tribe

Endogamy significance

reinforced social hierarchies, preserved wealth and religious purity, and maintained ethnic or tribal boundaries in ancient and medieval societies

Agricultural Revolutions

periods when societies shifted from hunting-gathering

Agriculture Revolutions significance

led to the development of permanent settlements, population growth, social stratification, and eventually civilization

Fertile Crescent

region in the Middle East where agriculture first emerged

Fertile Crescent significance

birthplace of early civilizations like Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon, this was key to understanding the origins of agriculture and state societies

Social Hierarchies

the division of society into ranked groups or classes

Social Hierarchies significance

shaped how resources, power, and rights were distributed in civilizations like Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Rome

Copper, Bronze, Iron

key materials marking technological ages (Copper Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age)

Copper, Bronze, and Iron significance

each material revolutionized tools and weapons, transforming economies, military power, and social organization

Homer

Ancient Greek poet, author of the Iliad and The Odyssey

Homer significance

his epics reflect early Greek values like heroism and honor, helped shape Greek identity and the Western literary tradition

Carthage

powerful Phoenician city-state in North Africa, rival of Rome

Carthage Significance

its defeat in the Punic Wars (especially the 3rd) marked Rome's dominance in the Mediterranean

Hoplites

heavily armed Greek citizen soldiers

Hoplites significance

their military formations were effective in warfare and reflected civic duty in Greek city-states especially Athens

Octavian

later known as Augustus, he was Julius Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor

Octavian significance

ended the Roman Republic and founded the Roman Empire, ushering in the Pax Romana

Democracy

government by the people; originated in Athens

Democracy significance

influenced modern political systems and emphasized citizen participation and rule of law

Organized warfare

structured, planned conflict between states or groups

organized Warfare Significance

enabled empires to expand, defend, and maintain order, often tied to bureaucratic and technological development

Hadrian's Wall

defensive fortification in Roman Britain built under Emperor Hadrian

Hadrian's Wall significance

marked the northern limit of the Roman Empire and symbolized Roman efforts to control and defend borders

Slavery

forced labor and ownership of humans

Slavery significance

critical to the economy and society of ancient civilizations like Gree, Rome, and various Islamic empires

Salamis

Naval battle in 480 BC where Greek forces defeated the Persians

Salamis significance

a turning point in the Greco-persian Wars; preserved Greek independence and allowed for the rise of the Athenian power

Bureaucracies

systems of government with many departments run by officials

Bureaucracies significance

essential for managing larger empires and collecting taxes, enforcing laws, etc

Ibn Battuta

14th century Muslim traveler who documented journeys across the Islamic world and beyond

Ibn Battuta significance

his travel writing give insights into cultural and political conditions across Africa, Asia, and Europe during the medieval era

Saharan Trade

trade routes across the Sahara Desert, especially in gold, salt, and slaves

Saharan Trade significance

connected west Africa to the Islamic World, promoting the rise of powerful empires like Mali and the spread of Islam

Bantu

group of African people who migrated across sub-Saharan Africa, spreading language, farming and ironworking

Bantu significance

their migration shaped the demographic and cultural landscape of much of sub-Saharan Africa

Kilwa

coastal city-state in East Africa, part of the Swahili trading network

Kilwa significance

a hub for Indian Ocean trade, connecting Africa with Arabia, Persia, and India; grew wealthy form gold and ivory trade

Noncentralized Societies

societies without a single central authority or state, often organized through kinship

Noncentralized Societies significance

common in many African societies; show alternative forms of governance outside state systems

Zimbabwe

powerful medieval African kingdom known for the stone city of Great Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe significance

a center of trade and political power in Southern Africa, showcasing indigenous African state-building and architecture

Herodotus

Greek historian known as the "Father of History"

Herodotus significance

his work Histories, is one of the earliest efforts to systematically record events (especially Greco-Persian wars), blending fact with myth. it set a foundation for historical inquiry.

Homo sapiens

the species name for modern humans, who emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa

Homo sapiens significance

they spread globally, outcompeting other human species (like Neanderthals) and developed complex societies, language, and culture

Delian League

a military alliance led by the Athens formed to defend against Persia

Delian League significance

helped Athens build an empire, but led to resentment from other Greek city0states, contributing to the Peloponnesian War