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Approaches to the study of politic
Task 1
Philosophical tradition: Analytical study of ideas and doctrines central to political thought. Applying normative questions→ judgments + values
Empirical: a dispassionate and impartial account of political reality, based on observation and experiment; empirical knowledge is derived from sense data and experience.
Behviouralism: Objective and quantifiable data with which hypotheses and patterns could be tested. Based on the basis of observable behavior, providing quantifiable data for research.
EX→ Voting behavior, behavior of legislators, politicians and lobbyists
Rational choice: Making models based on procedural rules and taking into account the rational decision and behavior of parties involved (Like a puzzle, deciphering actions of all players: game theory similarity)
New institutionalism: Set of rules that guide or constrain the actions of individuals
Five regimes in modern world
Task 1
Western liberal democracies
Free and fair elections
Individualism
Illiberal Democracies (turkey & venezuela)
Blend authoritarian and democracy
Legitimized by nationalism/populism→corruption, fishy things happening behind the scenes
East Asian Regimes : economy → Japan + tigers
Confuianism->community
Economic goals>political goals
Islamic Regimes + based on faith and religion (Iran)
Autocracy like
Quaran taken as law
Military Regimes
Military gunta, dictatorship, behind the scenes(brazil, military as big lobbyist)
the three world typology
Task 1
A capitalist “first world” → Industrialized Western regimes (economically)
Practiced liberal democratic politics
A communist “second world” → Largely industrialized and capable of providing citizens material needs
One party states dominated by comm parties
A developing “third world” → Less developed Africa, Asia and Latin America that were economically dependent on the former two and suffered from widespread poverty
Authoritarian and governed by monarchs, dictators or the army
Liberalism types: task 2
Liberalism
Ideology of the industrialized West
Early liberalism→ Aspirations of rising industrial middle class
Meta-Ideology→ higher or second-order ideology that lays down the grounds on which ideological debate can take place.
Features: Individualism, Freedom, Reason, Equality, Toleration, Constitutionalism, Consent (free elections)
Classical Liberalism
Extreme form of individualism
Possessive individualism→ Owe nothing to society or other individuals
Belief in “negative liberty” →non-interference, or the absence of external constraints on the individual→ Unsympathetic toward the state and government
Believe that government is a ‘Necessary evil'' → Tom Pain
Necessary to est. order and security + contract
Evil as it limits freedoms and responsibilities of the individual
Modern Liberalism
Support for “big government” → Interventionist gov (economic management and social regulation)
Freedom means→ ability of the individual to gain fulfillment and achieve self-realization.
Personal development and flourishing of the individual
State intervention in welfare→ Enlarge our liberties → Protect individuals from “social evils”
ML support for government intervention is limited → only for the weak and the vulnerable (who really need it )
Conservative types task 2
Conservatism
Stood in defense of traditional social order
Features:
Tradition, Pragmatism, Human imperfection (at fault), Organicism, Hierarchy, Authority, Property
Paternalistic Conservatism
The powerful and propertied inherit a responsibility to look after the less
Principles→ Organicism, hierarchy and duty
One-Nation Principle→ unity and inclusion of all citizens within a single nation, focusing on common values, interests, and a shared sense of identity while minimizing divisions or disparities among different groups.
Disposition towards social reform
The New Right
Combination of neoliberalism and neoconservatism
Neoliberalism→ ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’, belief that unregulated market capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity
Private enterprise over state enterprise
The individual and the market
Neoconservatism→ restore authority and return to traditional values, notably those linked to the family, religion and the nation
Shared values and culture = social cohesion and civilized existence
Against multicultural and multi-religious societies → conflict ridden and unstable (Insular nationalism)
Against supranational bodies (threatening)
Socialism types task 2
Socialism
Abolish capitalist economy based on market exchange and replace with socialist society a Principle of common ownership
Features: Community, Fraternity, Social Equality, Need, Social class, Common ownership
Marxism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820–95)
Bourgeoisie exploitation of the proletariat
Classical Marxism —> Importance of economic life → the conditions under which people produce and reproduce their means of subsistence
Societal change arises from→ internal contradictions within the economic system
particularly through class conflict→ collapse of capitalism is inevitable due to the exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie.
Orthodox Communism
Marxism-Leninism→ Marxism modified by a set of Leninist theories and doctrines.
Leninism→ his belief in the need for a ‘vanguard’ party to raise the proletariat to class consciousness.
Neo-Marxism
Human beings are the makers of history and not puppets under control
Humans have the capacity to shape their own destiny
Ideological Hegemony→ capitalism was maintained not merely by economic domination, but also by political and cultural factors (embedded into society???)
Social democracy task 2
Social Democracy
A balance between the market and state and the individual and the community
Acceptance of capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for generating wealth
Desire to distribute wealth in accordance with moral principles instead of market principles
New social democracy
Mixing old style social democracy with attractive parts of neoliberalism
Features
Socialism idea → embrace globalization and international competitiveness by building up education and skills
Liberal ideas of equality of opportunity and meritocracy
Endorse welfare reform
Anarchism task 2
Political authority in all its forms (especially the state) is evil and unnecessary
Stateless society where individuals manage their own affairs through agreement and cooperation
Mix of liberalism and socialism
Liberal aspect → Individualism and maximizing liberty and choice
Socialism aspect→ Cooperation, equality and common ownership
Facisim task 2
Defined by what it opposes→ Anti-capitalism, anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, anti-communism
Core theme→ Organically unified national community
Strength through unity→ The individual is nothing
Individual identity is absorbed into the community
New Man→ hero, motivated by duty, honor and self-sacrifice, prepared to dedicate his life to the glory of his nation or race, and to give unquestioning obedience to a supreme leader.
Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship in Italy (1922-43)
Hitler’s Nazi Germany (1933-45)
Feminism task 2
Societies is characterized by sexual or gender inequality
Structure of male power should be overturned
Schools of thoughts
Liberal Feminism→ core goal is equal access for women and men to the public realm, based on a belief of genderless personhood.
Liberal feminists→ Legal and political equality with men→ equal access to the public realm
Socialist Feminism→ seeks to restructure economic life to achieve gender equality, based on links between patriarchy and capitalism.
Socialist feminist→ equal rights are meaningless unless women also enjoy equality in terms of economic power (equal pay)
Radical Feminism→ Gender divisions are the most politically significant issues in society
Societies, historical and contemporary, are characterized by patriarchy
Call for Sexual revolution→ Restructure personal, domestic and family life
Racial feminists→ Equality in family and personal life
Green ideology
Reflects concerns about damage to the natural world by increasing pace of economic development and concern for declining quality of human existence and survival of human species
Ecosocialism→ environmental destruction in terms of capitalism’s rapacious desire for profit
Ecoconservatism→ cause of conservation to the desire to preserve traditional values and established institutions
Ecofeminism→ origins of the ecological crisis in the system of male power
Men are less sensitive than women to natural processes and the natural world.
By highlighting the importance of ecology→ develops an ecocentric world-view that portrays the human species as merely part of nature
Cosmopolitanism task 2
Ideological expression of globalization
Belief in cosmopolis→ “world state”
Cosmopolitanism goal→ global social justice
Political community redefines people as “global citizens” rather than to a particular state
Types
Political cosmopolitanism→ Establish global political institutions
Moral cosmopolitanism→ World is a single moral community
People have obligations to all other people in world
Religious fundamentalism task 2
Religious Fundamentalism
Core Idea→ Religion cannot be limited to private sphere it’s proper expression is in politics and core of society “Politics is religion”
Arises in deeply troubled societies → societies afflicted by crisis of identity
Islamic Fundamentalism→ ‘Islamic Revolution’ in Iran + Middle East and parts of north Africa and Asia
Christian Fundamentalism→ USA
Hindu Fundamentalism and Sikh Fundamentalism→ India
Buddhist Fundamentalism→ Sri Lanka and Myanmar
Populism task 2
Definition→ Populist politicians claim to support/represent the common people in the face of ‘corrupt’ economic or political elites.
Politicians will claim directly to the people
Core idea→ Society is divided into: “Pure people” and “Corrupt elite”
“The people” → have the only moral worth in politics, classification of “the people” is exclusive and does not actually include everyone
Corrupt elite→ Institutions they’re against (usually liberal ones)
Populism usually provides a space for xenophobic characters and discriminatory sentiments to be held
Resurgent Nationalism
Rise in nationalism as response to globalization and its economic, cultural and political changes
Rise in populism goes hand in hand→ anti globalization and anti-elite sentiments
Approaches to political economy task 3
Classical and neoclassical political economy
unregulated market economy tends towards long-run equilibrium\
Based on laissez-faire→ leaves the economy alone and the market is left to manage itself
based on liberal assumptions of human nature → idea that individuals, as rationally self-interested creatures are the key economic actors
Enterprise capitalism
State-centric political economy
Build up a state’s wealth, power and prestige by developing a favorable trading balance through producing goods for export while keeping imports low (state capitalism)
Marxist political economy
Portrays capitalism as a system of class exploitation
Social classes as key economic actors
Social class determines where they stand in terms of “means of wealth” (social capitalism)
Globalization task 3
Definition: reduction of political borders but also that divisions between people previously separated by time + space became less significant and irrelevant + homogenization as cultural, social, economic and political diversity
Economic globalization
All economies absorbed into some interlocking global economy
Reduced ability for national governments to manage economies and resist economic restructuring bc of free-market
Cultural globalization
Information, commodities and images enter a global flow and “flatten” cultural differences
Transnational companies (McDonalds, Starbucks) and global commodities
Needs to be careful not to erode cultures
Information revolution → satellite communication, telecommunications networks, information technology and the internet, and global media corporations
Political globalization
Transnational organizations that exercise jurisdiction in an international area (several states)
UN, NATO, The EU, the World Bank, IMF, WTO
Can take action without giving up national sovereignty
Promotes internationalism and world government
Rise of neoliberal globalization
Began with European state scramble to colonize Africa and Asia
Policies such as→ free trade, the liberalization of capital markets, flexible exchange rates, balanced budgets
Widens inequality and causes social breakdown because of rolling back of welfare provisions
Blame for 2009 market crash task 3
Regulators, investors, bankers and policymakers provided “rationale” for risk actions…
Made bankers believe pursuing self-interest would advance the wellbeing of society
Made regulators believe pursuing neglectful policies the private sector would flourish and all would benefit
Mortgage Brokers
Didn’t care about making good mortgage
Low- or No Documentation loans→ Maximizing transaction costs to generate revenue
Short term loans were useful because they had to be refinanced and were prone to risk of not being refinanced
Invented by some mortgage brokers who wanted to prey on inexperienced people
Regulators
Should have recognized the inherent risk in doing this
They worked had to make sure that appropriate regulations weren’t adopted
Corporate Governance laws are to blame→ regulations and guidelines that dictate how companies are managed and controlled
failures were often due to inadequate oversight and regulatory loopholes, which allowed companies to engage in unethical practices and financial fraud
The Economists
Provided arguments on convenience of the financial market for self serving purposes
Provided models on unrealistic assumptions of…
Perfect information
Perfect competition
Perfect markets
In reality→ A slight deviation from these assumptions destroyed their data
Central banks sole focus on fighting inflation
Argued that low inflation was best for stable growth and security
Result→ little attention was played to the financial structure
Approaches to political culture task 4
The civic-culture approach
blend of activity and passivity on the part of citizens, and a balance between obligation and performance on the part of government.
The Marxist approach
Ideas and culture are determined by “economic base”
Culture is class-specific→ members of a class share the same experiences and have a common economic position and interests, they are likely to have broadly similar ideas, values and beliefs
The conservative approach
See political culture as→ “traditional values and beliefs” that have been passed down from earlier generations which provide a cultural bedrock
Theories of media task 4
Pluralist model
Definition→ portrays the media as an ideological marketplace in which a wide range of political views are debated and discussed
Portrays media positively → Ensuring “informed citizenry”...
Enhances the quality of democracy
Power checks the government
EX→ Washington post investigation into watergate scandal→ Nixon resignation
Dominant-ideology model
Portrays media as politically conservative force that’s aligned to interests of economic and social elites that promotes political compliance/passivity among the masses
Ownership determines political views the mass media perpetuates
Elite values model
Focus on→ mechanism through which media output is controlled
Two versions of EV model
Anti-socialist and politically conservative views are most mainstream
Their senior professionals are well-paid and generally from middle-class backgrounds.
Views of university-educated liberal intellectuals are the most mainstream
Advanced by conservatives
Market model
Newspapers and television reflect, rather than shape, the views of the general public.
Connected with profits of media outlets→ “give the people what they want” to not risk ratings
EX→insulated from commercial and advertiser pressures but, the tyranny of ‘ratings’ is increasingly evident.
Impact of media task 4
The media and political leadership
Media transformation due to→ growing interest in the personal live and private conduct of senior political figures→ at the expense of serious and ‘sober policy and ideological debate
“Selling” politics
Elections as “horse races”
The greater the media attention the greater political leverage
Culture of contempt
Media impact on political culture
Creates a climate of “corrosive cynicism” → harmful form of skepticism
Disenchantment and lack of trust in government and politicians
Effect EX→ Declining voter turnout and falling party membership
Systematic and relentless negativity in the media surrounding politics → taken the place of legitimate criticism
Policy making in media age
Media impact on policy making process
Two ways:
24/7 news has made a 24/7 government expectation→ little time for analysis of a situation for
Greater reliance on media→ Media sets political agenda and direction of policy making
Theories of representation task 5
Trustee model
Trustee→ Person who acts on behalf of others using superior knowledge, better education or greater experience
Representation is a moral duty→ those with the good fortune to possess education and understanding should act in the interests of those who are less fortunate
Delegate Model
Delegate→ person who is chosen to act for another on the basis of clear guidance and instruction; delegates do not think for themselves.\
EX→ Sales representatives and ambassadors
Supports politicians sharing the same views as the people they represent
Initiatives and recall to give public more control over politicians
Initiatives→ type of referendum through which the public is able to raise legislative proposals.
Recall→ process whereby the electorate can call unsatisfactory public officials to account and ultimately remove them
Mandate model
Modern politicians→ seen as foot soldiers for a party, and are supported because of its public image or programme of policies
“Doctrine of the mandate” → idea that in winning an election, a party gains a popular mandate that authorizes it to carry out whatever policies or programmes it outlined during the election campaign.
Politicians don’t carry out their personal view → carry out Party views and policies
Functions of elections task 5
Recruiting politicians
Elections are principal source of political recruitment (democratic states)
Elections not typically used to fill posts that require specialist knowledge
Making governments
Political executive is directly elected→ Only kind of elections that directly make the government (only in US, Russia, France, Venezuela)
Providing representation
Elections are means through which demands are channeled from the public to the government
Initiatives and recall→ Main way effective means are carried out
Not many other
Influencing policy
Elections deter government from pursuing unpopular or radical policies
Policy outlining is usually so narrow → little policy significance
Special case: Single dominating issue→ will influence policy
Educating voters
Elections inform people on parties, candidates, policies, the current government’s record, the political system
Educated only on provided information
Politicians want to persuade instead of educate→ Provide distorted information
Building legitimacy
Election provide justification for the system of rule
Campaigning→ Puts elections ar a ceremonial status of importance
Elections mobilize active consent
Strengthening elites
Way for elites to manipulate and control the masses
Political discontent and opposition→ can be neutralized by elections that channel them in a constitutional direction
“Trick” the people into thinking they have control or power over the government
Electoral systems task 5
Majoritarian systems→ the candidate with the most votes takes the seat this way provides majoritarian representation.
Proportional Representation systems→ distribution of seats in a legislative body is determined proportionally to the number of votes each political party or group receives in an election
Single-member plurality (majoritarian voting system): awards one seat per district to the candidate with the most votes, even if they don't have a majority. It often leads to a two-party system.
Second ballot (majoritarian) system: holding a second round of voting when no candidate in the initial election receives a majority. It aims to ensure the winning candidate has majority support, typically between the top two candidates.
The Alternative Vote (AV) or Supplementary Vote (majoritarian voting system): where voters rank candidates in order of preference. If no candidate receives a majority, the lowest-ranked candidates are eliminated, and their votes are redistributed until a candidate secures a majority.
Theories of voting task 5
Party-Identification model
Based on→ psychological attachment that people have to parties “party loyalty”
Sociological model
Links→ voting behavior to group membership
Voting pattern that reflects economic and social position of the group that they belong to
Rational-choice model
Voting attention on the individual separate from socialization and the behavior of social groups
Voting is a rational act→ Individuals vote on their own self interest
Dominant-ideology model
Individual choices shaped by process of ideological manipulation
Individuals interpret their position depending on how it has been presented to them through education (what they were taught/ingrained to believe)
Influences of media
Functions of political parties task 5
representation: Primary function of parties.
elite formation and recruitment Parties of all kinds are responsible for providing states with their political leaders.
goal formulation Political parties have traditionally been the driving force behind governments' goal-setting by formulating plans and programs to gain public support.
interest articulation and aggregation Political parties play a crucial role in expressing and combining different interests within a society as they work to create common goals.
socialization and mobilization Political parties are vital in shaping public understanding and beliefs through internal debates, campaigns, and electoral competition.
organization of government. Political parties play a crucial role in governing modern societies.
→In parliamentary systems, the majority party typically forms the government, ensuring cooperation.
→In presidential systems, the executive can leverage party unity for influence.
Functions of Assemblies task 6
Legislation
Assemblies and parliaments legislative pwr→ authoritative and binding laws
Representation
Assemblies are a representative link between government and the people
Scrutiny and oversight
Overtime have become scrutinizing bodies→ Role to deliver accountability or responsibility
Recruitment and training
Assemblies are usually where future leading politicians make their debut in politics
Legitimacy
Promote the legitimacy of a regime→ by encouraging the public to see the system of rule as ‘rightful’
Functions of committees task 6
Detailed consideration of legislative measures and financial proposals
relieve chambers of some legislative burden
More thorough examination than is possible on floor of the house
May be set up to scrutinize government administration and oversee the exercise of executive power
Permanent and specialized (rival executive in terms of knowledge and expertise)
US→ Standing committees
ad hoc committees may investigate matters of public concern
EX→ Irvin committee (watergate scandal)
Assemblies in decline? task 6
Disciplined political parties
Mass membership parties weakened assemblies
Parties becoming main way of representation (through the doctrine of the mandate)
Party loyalty (function as debating chambers)
Big government
Growth of government role (social welfare and economic management)
increase in the size and status of bureaucracies
greater emphasis on the process of policy initiation and formulation
‘big’ government has meant that government policy is increasingly complex and intricate
higher premium on expertise, possessed by ‘professional’ bureaucrats than by ‘amateur’ politicians
Lack of leadership
Too many political representatives with power
Interest group and media power
Rise of interest groups:
Provided the public with diff. Form of representation
popular grievances, and giving expression to the concerns and aspirations of particular groups→ in public debate that previously took place only in parliamentary chambers
More prominent in policy formulation
As representation of “affected groups”
Purpose of a constitution task 6
Empowering states
Mark existence of a state
Make claims of sphere of independent authority
Can be said: “No constitution, no state” → they lack formal jurisdiction over a particular territory, or a governing apparatus that can effectively exercise that jurisdiction.
EX→ India independence (1947), Adoption of federal constitution (1950)
Establishing values and goals
Embody a broader set of political values, ideals and goals
Can’t be neutral→ always intertwined with ideological priorities
Creators invest their regime with→ set of unifying values, a sense of ideological purpose and a vocabulary that can be used in the conduct of politics.
Providing government stability
Formalize and regulate the relationships between political bodies
Provide a mechanism through which conflicts can be adjudicated and resolved
Institutional powers
Protecting freedom
Devices for est. and maintaining…
Limited government→ Government operating within constraints, usually imposed by law, a constitution or institutional checks and balances.
Defining civil rights and liberties (bill of rights)(negative and positive rights)
Fundamental freedoms→ freedom of expression, freedom of religious worship, freedom of assembly and freedom of movement
Legitimizing regimes
Two dimensions:
Existence of a constitution is almost a prerequisite for a state’s membership of the international community and for its recognition by other states
Build legitimacy within a state through the promotion of respect and compliance amongst the domestic population
Functions of the executive task 7
Ceremonial leadership
“Stand for the state” → Give state authority a personal form
Formal and ceremonial duties→ state occasions, foreign visits, international conferences, and the ratification of treaties and legislation.
Non exec presidents and constitutional monarchs sometimes charged with this while other execs carry out day-to day
Policy making leadership
Key function of an executive→ Direct and control the policy process (govern)
Popular leadership
Popularity of executive is crucial to the regime and its stability
Mobilize public support and cooperation
Legitimizes regime
Bureaucratic leadership
Overseeing implementation of policy (bureaucratic and administrative responsibilities)
Organized along departmental lines
Senior ministers having responsibility for particular policy areas
Bureaucrats engaged to administer those areas
Policy coordination→ cabinet system
Crisis Leadership
Ability to take swift and decisive action
Domestic or international crisis→ Execs. get near dictatorial powers in times of war
Emergency powers→ when confronted by: natural disasters, terrorist threats, industrial unrest and
civil disorder (domestic)
Theories of leadership task 7
A natural gift
Traditional view is leadership is a rare but natural gift
Leadership is an individual quality
Extreme form→ Fascist leader principle (Führerprinzip)
Single supreme leader (always male) alone capable of leading the masses to their destiny
A sociological phenomenon
Leaders are “created” by socio historical forces → Vehicle through which historical forces are exerted
Marxism→ Historical development structured by economic factors
Political leadership is product of collective behavior
Crowd psychology→ leaders influenced by masses, not other way around
An organizational necessity
Leadership as a technical, rational bureaucratic device
Organizational device that emerged out of necessity for coherence, unity and direction
Goes hand in hand with bureaucracy
Modern large-scale organizations require specialization, which, in turn, gives rise to a hierarchy of offices and responsibilities
Legal rational authority
A political skill
Leadership is a skill that can be learned and practiced
Akin to art of manipulation
Rhetoric→art of using language to persuade or influence; rhetoric can imply high-sounding but essentially vacuous Speech.
Styles of leadership task 7
Laissez-faire
Reluctance of the leader to interfere in matters outside his or her personal responsibility
Hands off with cabinet and department management
EX→ Reagan White House, and the relatively slight interest that Reagan took in the day-to-day workings of his administration.
Transactional
Hands on style
Motivated by pragmatic goals and considerations
maintenance of party unity and government cohesion
strengthening of public support and electoral credibility
Transformational leadership
Leader is inspirer or visionary
Motivated by strong ideological convictions
Mobilize support within government, parties, public to realize leaders personal goals
Populism and leadership
Shaped by anti politics
Leaders claim of “Authenticity” in politics
Advertising their difference→ claim that they are real people and not “manufactured” politicians
Portray themselves as “political outsiders”
Donald trump is prime example
Theories of decision making task 8
Rational actor models
Based on economic theories drawn from utilitarianism
Public choice theories
“Economic man” → Stresses self-interested pursuit of material items in terms of utility (measure of satisfaction, based on the quantity of pleasure over pain (usually) derived from material consumption)
Incremental models
Incrementalism→ theory that decisions are made not in the light of clear-cut objectives, but through small adjustments dictated by changing circumstances.
Decisions made on inadequate information + low levels of understanding
Discourages innovative and bold thinking
Policy making is an exploratory process
Operate in existing framework→ adjust position a bit after feedback
No clear goals
Bureaucratic organization model
Highlight how processes influence product
Contrasting-related decision making model:
Organizational process model→ Impact decisions have on values, assumptions and regular patterns of behavior in a large organization
Decisions reflect the image/culture of the organization (government)
Bureaucratic politics model→ Impacts on decisions through bargaining between personnel and agencies pursuing different interests
Belief system models
Decisions based on beliefs and ideology
Highlights how behavior is structured by perception (value influence understanding)
Unconscious action usually
Don’t realize how your beliefs influence your perception of right and wrong)
Stages in policy process task 8
Policy initiation
This structures all following debate, discussion and decision making
Defining certain problems as issues and by determining how those issues are to be addressed.
Policy can originate from any part of political system
“bottom up” pressures for policy initiation→strikes, riots, and natural disasters to stock market crashes in foreign states and investment decisions made by transnational corporations.
Policy formulation
Elaboration and analysis of problem/issue to develop policy proposals
Translation of broad proposals into specific and detailed recommendations
Filtering out proposals
Reduces range of actors involved in the policy process
Job of the “insiders” (gov officials, advisers, politicians etc.)
Policy implementation
Large gap in decision and delivery
Implementers (Civil servants, local gov officers, teachers, doctors, police officers) may have better “street view” of how policy will work in the real world
“Bottom up” policy analysis
Policy evaluation
Feedback stage
Decisions being made about the maintenance, succession or termination of the policy in question.
Allows for revision
Functions of bureaucracy task 8
Administration
Implement or execute law and policy
Examples:
Implementation of welfare and social security programs.
Regulation of the economy.
Granting of licenses.
Provision of information
Advice to citizens at home and abroad.
Size of bureaucracies linked to the broader responsibilities of government
Policy advice
Chief source of policy information and advice available to government
Top-level civil servants (have daily contact with politicians and are expected to act as policy advisers)
Middle-ranking and junior-ranking civil servants (deal with more routine administrative matters)
Policy made by politicians, advice given by bureaucrats
Articulating interests
Not a formal function
Articulate and aggregate interests
Bureaucracies in contact with interest groups during policy implementation
They can turn into clients of the bureaucracy
Clientelism→ relationship through which government agencies come to serve the interests of the client groups they are responsible for regulating or supervising.
Can benefit by maintaining consensus
Can interfere with public duties of civil servants
Political stability
Provide a focus of stability and continuity in political systems
Depends on stability of government
Absence of public scrutiny→ corruption
Permanence→ arrogance and insularity or bias in conservatism
Organization of the bureaucracy task 8
Organized on basis of purpose or function
Departments, ministries and agencies charged with responsibility for particular policy areas:
Education
Housing
Defence
Drug control
Taxation
Centralism or decentralism
Decentralized bureaucracy→ Distributes administrative authority across multiple levels, empowering local entities for independent decision-making within defined parameters, fostering flexibility and efficiency.
USA→ The federal bureaucracy operates under the formal authority of the president as chief administrator. However, it is so diffuse and unwieldy that all presidents struggle to coordinate and direct its activities
Centralized Bureaucracy→ Concentrates administrative authority and decision-making within a single central authority. This structure aims to streamline control and coordination but may limit flexibility and responsiveness to local variations.
Remaking the bureaucracy
Job of government is to ‘steer’ not to ‘row’ → government works best when it concerns itself with policy-making and leaves the delivery of services or policy implementation to other bodies acting as agents of the state
Executive agencies→ body that (usually) operates within a government department but enjoys a significant measure of managerial and budgetary independence.
How can bureaucrats be controlled? task 8
Strategic position
Modern states are structured in a way that offers considerable scope for civil service influence
Access to information and are able to control its flow to their ministerial bosses
They decide what to tell and what not to tell
Association with interest groups strengthen their position
Emergence of… policy networks, which tend to be relatively impervious to influence from the public or elected politicians
Logistical relationships
Operational relationship and distribution of advantage between ministers and civil servants
Ministers are supposed to be masters—Bureaucrats, their subordinates
Other way around:
Politicians outnumbered by leading bureaucrats
Politicians and civil servants have differently structured jobs
Politicians come and go
Civil servants are permanent
Full time policy advisers–Ministers, part time departmental bosses (other responsibilities)
Status and expertise
Certain status and respect is given to civil servants
Stems from expertise and special knowledge
How can bureaucrats be controlled? Task 8
Political accountability
State bureaucracies can be made accountable to the political executive, the assembly, the judiciary or the public
Executive:
Doctrine of ministerial responsibility→ Ministers alone are responsible to the assembly for the actions of their officials and the policies pursued by their department
Legislative:
Ensure that bureaucrats are politically accountable
US→ The US Congress
scrutinizes the presidential budget→ Constitutional authority to provide funds for the various executive departments and agencies.
Gives congressional committees the opportunity to probe and investigate the workings of each department, scrutinize their estimates, and expose cases of maladministration and misappropriation.
Judicial:
In systems where administrative law is enacted
Administrative law→ Law that defines the power and functions of the executive organs of the state.
Public:
Ombudsman system→ Individual grievances can be redressed
Rarely operates with force of law→ lack means of enforcement
Politicization
Recruit the senior bureaucracy into the ideological enthusiasms of the government of the day
Blurs politics and administration distinction
Blurs politicians and public official distinction
Administration changing with the president/government
Ensures higher level of loyalty and commitment
Bad tho, instills biases and such
Counter Bureaucracies
Structures designed to support or assist politicians or act as a counterweight to the official bureaucracy
Use of political advisers (outsiders)
Multiple institutions put in place to share ministers workload and help advise
Counter-bureaucracies compensate for the imbalance in the relationship between amateur, temporary and outnumbered politicians and their expert, permanent and professional officials
Why are politics declining? task 10
Uninspiring party politics
Shift from programmatic political parties → “Catch all” parties
De-ideologization→ left and right becoming detached from their ideological roots
Lost sense of purpose + direction
Not providing basis for supporter emotional attachment to party
All politicians look and sound the same
All trying to appeal to same pool of voters→ centrist bias (center-left and center-right)
Abandoning the major issues their party focuses on → shift to less meaningful debate
Declining capacity to deliver
Capacity of political actors to bring about promised change
Reflects national governments narrowing span of control
Two ways:
Spread of neoliberalism
Regards political involvement in matters of economics and social exchange as non-legitimate
Economy should be depoliticized
Economic and social reform (nationalization, social welfare, wealth redistribution) unlikeable in mainstream politics
Globalization
Economic interdependence→ No state is unaffected by the other’s financial crisis
Global market affects national/domestic economic decisions
Rising demands and expectations
Media negativity
Culture of contempt
Media impact on political culture
Creates a climate of “corrosive cynicism” → harmful form of skepticism
Disenchantment and lack of trust in government and politicians
Effect EX→ Declining voter turnout and falling party membership
Systematic and relentless negativity in the media surrounding politics → taken the place of legitimate criticism
Act as Clickbait→ Curiosity- provoking headlines found in digital media which are designed to encourage people to click through to linked content
Growth of consumerist politics
Consumerist attitudes and instincts applied to politics
Citizens are more demanding of politics and politicians while becoming less and less engaged
Two possibilities:
Society of free riders→ enjoy all the benefits of citizenship (schools, roads, free speech, economic progress, public order, and so forth) without accepting the associated costs, and, especially, without bothering to political involvement in matters of economics and social exchange as non-legitimate
Society frustrated at politics and its leaders → Because politics has failed to deliver the unreasonable demands
Cultural and social developments:
First, decline of deference. Responding to the expansion of educational opportunities and other factors, this has led to the adoption of more questioning attitudes towards authority, affecting politics, the family, the workplace and society at large.
Second, linked to burgeoning affluence, there has been a growth, particularly among younger people, of ‘post material’ values. By shifting the focus of politics away from narrowly economic issues, postmaterialism has raised the profile of ‘quality of life’ issues such as women’s rights, gay liberation and environmental protection, which the conventional party system, accustomed to traditional left/right thinking, often struggles to accommodate.
Third, the erosion of levels of social capital has led to a rise in individualism and a faltering sense of civic and political duty. This has been reflected not only in declining voter turnout, but also in falling attendances at public, town and school meetings
Fourth, the spread of liberal social values has generated a backlash among those left behind by cultural changes (such as gender equality and the advance of multiculturalism) that they deeply reject. Particularly affecting non-college-educated white men in Western societies, this has generated hostility towards a political system that seems to ignore some of their deepest concerns
How to mend? task 10
More democracy
Placing ALL political bodies with policy-making responsibilities on an elective basis
Widening the use of referendums and other forms of direct democracy
Introducing proportional representation
Shortening electoral terms
Introducing rules on political funding and campaigning that ensure fair inter-party competition
Democratizing parties by strengthening the role of grass-roots members or supporters
Democratizing the economy by introducing workers’ control self-management.
Scaling down politics
Withdrawing from or abolishing regional or international bodies that operate on supranationalism
Ensuring superiority of national law (over international law)
Reconstructing state on basis of federalism
Devolution in unitary states OR strengthening power of devolved bodies
Bolstering local government power→ ensuring it enjoys fiscal (monetary) independence
Reviving citizenship
Citizenship education become a core of school/college education
Compulsory community service
Compulsory military service
Making voting compulsory
Incorporating equal treatment and participation into law
Bill of rights that works with est. international framework of human rights
Strengthening awareness of diverse pluralistic nature of modern societies
Rebuilding equality
Introduce or reintroduce economic planning (expansion of public ownership??)
Inr. public spending + allow public borrowing to expand and inject growth into economy
Make tax system steeply progressive
Tighter controls on banking and financial sector of the economy
Expand the welfare state + better funding for public services and benefits system
Note 
Flashcard (22)