Neurology Chapter 1

Neuroanatomy

Structures of the nervous system and their relationship to each other

Neurophysiology

how the nervous system functions

Molecular level

Focus on subcellular structures like proteins, ions, or lipids

work on the chemistry and physics of the nervous system structure and function

• neuroscientists work on the chemistry and physics of nervous system structure and function.

Protiens, ions, lipids

Cellular level

Neurons, glia, pericytes, ependymal cells

focus on how the cells of the nervous function individually or in cooperation

• might be investigating how glial support cells affect synaptic signaling.

Systems Level

They are groups of neurons and glia that perform a particular function. Accomplishing this often requires signaling through chains of neurons across different areas of the nervous system

• neuroscientist might study how the somatosensory, motor, or autonomic systems work.

Motor, autonomic, visual systems

Regional Level

Midbrain, cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus

regions are anatomically defined areas and divisions. Functioning associated with nervous system regions may involve signals coming into or leaving, as well as signaling within that region

• neuroscientist might seek to understand how the midbrain affects autonomic function.

Cognitive level

Involves the processes mediating emotions, thinking, learning, morality and attention. These are mediated by the cerebral and limbic cortices, and are particularly well developed in humans

• A neuroscientist might be interested in how we learn new skills.

Learning, memory, emotion, attention

Transverse plane

a horizontal "sheet" that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections

Coronal Plane

a vertical plane that divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections

Sagittal plane

a vertical anatomical plane that divides the brain into left and right sections, allowing for a side view of its structures

CNS

Central Nervous System

• consists of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the body's control center for processing sensory information and coordinating responses. It receives input from the peripheral nervous system, then integrates this information to regulate thought, memory, movement, and involuntary functions like breathing and heartbeat.

PNS

Made up of nerves and neurons located outside in the CNS

• the network of nerves and ganglia located outside the brain and spinal cord, forming a vital communication link between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body. It is responsible for transmitting sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to the body's limbs and organs.

can be divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Cerebrum

the large folded hemispheres and thalamic structures buried within them that make up the bulk of the brain tissue

History

• family background

• symptoms

• onset

• progression

• Genetic influence

• Acute or Chronic

Observation

• Mental Status

• etiology and syndrome

• preliminary diagnosis

• clinical tests

• final diagnosis

• prognosis

• treatment plan

Neurological Exam

Sensory systems

motor systems

autonomic system

reflexes

focal or diffuse

lesion location?

In vitro

“in glass'“ and refers to the experiments that do not require intact organisms

ex vivo

outside the body

In vivo

literally “ in life” and referring to experiments in living organisms

Computed Tomography

CT scans

uses X-rays to provide information about structures based on density

• The denser the structure, the lighter the image

• great at diagnosing large dense lesions like solid tumors

• not good at identifying small lesions or lesions that do not change tissue density.

• Ideal for tumors, fractures, large lesions

• X- ray radiation may be a risk factor

• Limited Resolution

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRI

Images are generated from decay of a radio frequency pulse that aligns the protons in water.

• skull not well imaged in water

• very fine nervous system structures can be assessed due to better resolution.

• Uses radiofrequency pulses

• no x-ray radiation

• contrasting agent can be used for increased structural resolution

• much more clear

Functional MRI

fMRI

• measures change in blood flow

• hemodynamic response

• best spatial resolution for function

• temporal resolution is low in seconds

• expensive and stressful

• easy to see changes that are happening

Positron Emission Tomography

PET

• Measures changes in blood flow

• functional imaging using radiotracers

• detects gamma rays emitted from a positron during decay of radiotracer

• Can be linked to molecular probes like NT receptors

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

• diffusion-weighted MRI

• Relies on hydrogen diffusion

• great for white matter and axon damage

• limited clinical use

Electroencephalogram

EEG

• Optimal temporal resolution

• Only true clinical way to detect neural activity