Renaissance Humanists, Artists, and Scientific Revolution: Key Figures and Ideas

Petrarch

"Francesco Petrarch (PEE trahrk), who lived in Florence, a city in north Italy in the 1300s, was an early Renaissance humanist. From monasteries and churches, he hunted down and assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts. Through his efforts, and those who followed his example, the speeches of Cicero, the poems of Homer and Virgil, and Livy's History of Rome again became known to Western Europeans. Petrarch also wrote poetry. His Sonnets to Laura are love poems, inspired by a woman he knew only at a distance, but their style greatly influenced writers of his time. Petrarch wrote in the vernacular, or everyday language of ordinary people, as well as in Latin."

Machiavelli's experience for his book

"Niccolò Machiavelli (mahk ee uh VEL ee) wrote a different kind of handbook. He had served Florence as a diplomat and had observed kings and princes in foreign courts. He had also studied ancient Roman history. In The Prince, published in 1513, Machiavelli offered a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power."

What areas are included in Flanders

"Flanders, a region that included parts of present-day northern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, was an important industrial and financial center of northern Europe in the 1500s."

Albrecht Dürer

"Among the most influential artists of the northern Renaissance was the German painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer (DYOOR ur). In 1494, he made the first of several trips to Italy to study the works and techniques of Italian masters. At home, he employed the new methods in his own paintings, engravings, and prints. Through these works as well as his essays, Dürer helped spread Renaissance ideas to northern Europe. Dürer had a keen, inquiring mind. Because of his wide-ranging interests, which extended far beyond art, he is sometimes called the 'German Leonardo.' Dürer is well-known for applying the painting techniques he had learned in Italy to engraving, a method of making prints from metal plates. In an engraving, an artist etches a design on a metal plate with acid. The artist then uses the plate to make prints. Many of Dürer's engravings and paintings portray religious upheaval of the time."

Desiderius Erasmus

"The great Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus (ih RAZ mus), became a priest in 1492. He used his knowledge of classical languages to produce a new Greek edition of the New Testament and a much-improved Latin translation of the Bible. At the same time, Erasmus called for a translation of the Bible into the vernacular. 'I disagree very much with those who are unwilling that Holy Scripture, translated into the vernacular, be read by the uneducated.' For him, 'the strength of the Christian religion' should not be based on people's ignorance of it, but on their ability to study it on their own. Erasmus used his pen to call for reforms in the Church. He challenged the worldliness of the Church and urged a return to early Christian traditions. His best-known work, In Praise of Folly, uses humor to explore the ignorant, immoral behavior of people. Erasmus taught that an individual's chief duties were to be open-minded and show good will toward others."

How did the printing press affect literacy rates in Europe

"The printing revolution ushered in a new era of mass production of books. It also affected the price of books. Books printed with movable type on rag paper were easier to produce and cheaper than hand-copied works. As books became readily available, more people learned to read and write. They thus gained access to a broad range of knowledge as presses churned out books on topics from medicine and law to astrology, mining, and geography."

What year did Northern Europe recover economically from the plague

"The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid-1300s and later spread north to the rest of Europe. It reached its height in the 1500s. After 1450, the economic growth that had been slow during the plague years began to revive."

When and how many plays did Shakespeare write

"Between 1590 and 1613, he wrote 37 plays that are still performed around the world."

Indulgences of the Middle Ages

"In the Middle Ages, the Church had granted indulgences only for good deeds, such as going on a crusade."

John Wycliffe

"In England, religious leaders like John Wycliffe had called for Church reform as early as the 1300s."

John Hus

"Jan Hus, born about 40 years after Wycliffe, led a reform movement in what is today the Czech Republic. He was tried for preaching heresy, found guilty, and burned at the stake in 1415."

Charles V and Luther

"In 1521, Charles V, the new Holy Roman emperor, summoned Luther to the diet at the city of Worms. Luther expected to defend his writings, but instead he was ordered to give them up. He declared: 'Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason... my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.' The emperor declared Luther an outlaw, making it a crime for anyone in the empire to give him food or shelter. But Luther had many powerful supporters. They hid him in a castle where he translated the Bible into German, allowing ordinary people to read and study it for the first time."

When Geneva asked Calvin to lead

"In 1541, Protestants in the city of Geneva asked Calvin to lead their community. Calvin set up a theocracy, or government run by church leaders."

Anabaptists and church and state

"Most Anabaptists, however, were peaceful. In an age of religious intolerance, they called for religious toleration. They also put forward the idea of the separation of church and state."

Who wrote pamphlet against Luther

"At first, Henry VIII stood firmly against the Protestant revolt. The pope even awarded him the title Defender of the Faith for a pamphlet that Henry wrote denouncing Luther."

Executed for not accepting Supremacy Act of 1534

"Many loyal Catholics refused to accept the Act of Supremacy and were executed for treason. Among them was the well-known English humanist, Sir Thomas More. More was later canonized, or recognized as a saint, by the Catholic Church."

Queen Elizabeth and religion under her reign

"Elizabeth I wanted to return her kingdom to Protestantism, but she faced a country divided between Catholics and Protestants. To maintain peace, she established a compromise called the Elizabethan Settlement. This compromise required outward conformity to the Church of England but allowed some private Catholic practices. The settlement preserved some traditional Catholic rituals and church hierarchy while keeping England officially Protestant. Elizabeth's policies allowed England to avoid religious wars that plagued much of Europe during her reign."

Results of the Catholic Reformation

"By 1600, the majority of Europeans remained Catholic. The Catholic Church had clarified its teachings, reformed many of its abuses, and fought the spread of Protestantism. New religious orders, like the Jesuits, worked to educate people, spread Catholic faith worldwide, and combat heresy. The Catholic Reformation strengthened the Church and renewed its spiritual mission, though religious conflicts continued in Europe."

Where were the majority of witches killed 1450 to 1750

"Most victims of witch hunts died in the German states, Switzerland, and France, all centers of religious conflict."

How did Europeans view the heliocentric solar system

"Most experts rejected this revolutionary theory. If the accepted view of the universe was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge might be called into question. Besides, the Church taught that the heavens were fixed, unmoving, and perfect."

Robert Boyle

"English chemist Robert Boyle, in the 1600s, refined the alchemists' view of chemicals as basic building blocks. Boyle explained that all matter was composed of tiny particles that behave in knowable ways. He distinguished between individual elements and chemical compounds and explained the effect of temperature and pressure on gases. Boyle's work opened the way to modern chemical analysis of the composition of matter."

What math Isaac Newton

"To explain his laws, Newton developed a branch of mathematics called calculus, which was partially developed by a German scientist, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz."

Whose research supported Copernicus' model

"After years of calculating, Kepler found that the planets do not move in a perfect circle, as both Ptolemy and Copernicus believed. Instead, each planet moved in an oval-shaped orbit called an ellipse. In this way, Kepler's calculations supported Copernicus's heliocentric view."

Pico della Mirandola quote

"An Italian thinker, Pico della Mirandola, captured this spirit of adventure and confidence in human abilities when he wrote: 'To (man) it is granted to have whatever he chooses, to be whatever he wills.'"

Why was Italy the start of Renaissance

"Italy was the center of the Roman Empire and had been a crossroads of Mediterranean trade. Italian cities grew wealthy through trade and banking. The accumulation of wealth allowed people to support artists, scholars, and writers. Italy's cities were politically independent, and citizens could pursue learning and creativity. The combination of wealth, classical heritage, and political conditions made Italy the ideal birthplace for the Renaissance."

Why Florence had so many artists, poets, scholars, etc.

"Florence became a symbol of the Italian Renaissance. Wealthy merchant families, such as the Medici, sponsored artists and writers. Schools and libraries were established to promote classical learning. Artists, architects, and scholars flocked to Florence to study and create, contributing to a vibrant cultural environment."

What did Donatello do

"Donatello created a life-size statue of a soldier on horseback. This statue was the first full-size equestrian sculpture since ancient times. Donatello used perspective and realistic proportions, helping to advance Renaissance art techniques."

Which works of art are from Leonardo da Vinci

"Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, among other works. He combined art with science, studying anatomy, engineering, and nature to enhance his paintings."

Who said "for outer beauty is the true sign of inner goodness"

"Baldassare Castiglione wrote in The Book of the Courtier that 'for outer beauty is the true sign of inner goodness.'"

Peasant Bruegel

"During the 1500s, Pieter Bruegel (BROY guhl), a Flemish painter, used vibrant colors to portray lively scenes of peasant life, earning him the nickname 'Peasant Bruegel.'"

Characteristics of Utopia

"In 1516, Sir Thomas More pressed for social reform. In Utopia, he describes an ideal society in which men and women live in peace and harmony. Everyone is educated and justice is used to end crime rather than to eliminate the criminal. Today, the word utopian has come to describe any ideal society often with the implication that such a society is impractical."

1500 how many books

"The printing revolution ushered in a new era of mass production of books... Between 1455 and 1500, 15 to 20 million volumes had been produced. In the next century, with presses throughout Europe, the number rose to between 150 and 200 million books."

German Leonardo

"Because of his wide-ranging interests, which extended far beyond art, Albrecht Dürer is sometimes called the 'German Leonardo.'"

Middle Ages popes become worldly. Evidence of worldliness

"In the Middle Ages, the Church had become increasingly caught up in worldly affairs. Popes competed with Italian princes for political power. They fought long wars to protect the Papal States against invaders and plotted against powerful monarchs who tried to seize control of the Church within their lands. The popes led lavish lives, supported the arts, and hired artists to beautify churches. To finance such projects, the Church increased fees for services such as marriages and baptisms. Some clergy also sold indulgences."

Textbook description of things in Martin Luther's 95 Theses

"In 1517, protests against Church abuses erupted into a full-scale revolt. The man who triggered the revolt was a German monk and professor of theology named Martin Luther... In 1517, Johann Tetzel set up a pulpit on the outskirts of Wittenberg, Germany, offering indulgences to any Christian who contributed money for the rebuilding of the Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome. He claimed that purchase of these indulgences would assure entry into heaven not only for the purchasers but for their dead relatives as well. When Tetzel's actions prompted Luther to take action, he drew up his 95 Theses, or arguments, against indulgences. In accordance with the academic practice of the time, he may have posted his list on the door of Wittenberg's All Saints Church. Among other things, he argued that indulgences had no basis in the Bible, that the pope had no authority to release souls from purgatory, and that Christians could be saved only through faith."

Chart comparing Lutheranism and Calvinism

"Lutheranism taught that salvation comes through faith alone. Calvinism emphasized predestination, the idea that God had already chosen who would be saved and who would be damned. Both movements rejected some Catholic teachings and practices, simplified church rituals, and encouraged reading the Bible."

Countries where Calvinism had taken root by the late 1500s

"By the late 1500s, Calvinism had spread to Germany, France, the Netherlands, England, and Scotland. Its influence shaped both religious practices and political life in these countries."

Which ideas did Lutherans adopt as they set up churches

"As Lutherans used the printing press to spread their ideas, they gained followers among German princes as well as ordinary people. By the late 1530s, the Lutherans had formed their own churches. They set up schools for studying the Bible. They rejected five of the seven sacraments because the Bible did not mention them. They simplified the elaborate ritual of the mass and instead emphasized the sermon. They permitted the clergy to marry."

Catholic ruler who criticized Calvin's rule in Geneva

"Henry III of France criticized Calvin's strict rule in Geneva. He disapproved of theocracy and the severe enforcement of moral laws."

Why were Anabaptists called Anabaptists

"Anabaptists were called 're-baptizers' because they rejected infant baptism and insisted that adults should be baptized when they could consciously choose to follow Christ. They also advocated religious toleration and separation of church and state."

1534 Act of Supremacy

"The Act of Supremacy of 1534 declared that Henry VIII was 'the only supreme head on Earth of the Church of England.'"

Textbook says what things were decided by the Council of Trent

"The Council of Trent clarified Catholic doctrine, reformed abuses, reaffirmed the seven sacraments, upheld the authority of the pope, and addressed issues raised by Protestant reformers. It also instructed bishops to establish seminaries for educating clergy."

What did the Jesuits do to further Catholic causes throughout the world

"The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, worked to spread Catholicism through education, missionary work, and advising rulers. They opened schools, trained priests, and traveled worldwide to promote the Catholic faith and combat Protestant influence."

What are the steps in the scientific method

"By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, based upon observation and experimentation. This approach is known as the scientific method. Step by step, scientists collected and accurately measured data. To explain the data, scientists used reasoning to propose a logical hypothesis, or possible explanation. They then tested the hypothesis with further observation or experimentation. Mathematical calculations were used to convert the observations and experiments into scientific laws. This step-by-step process of discovery became the scientific method."

Differences between René Descartes' ideas and Francis Bacon's ideas

"Francis Bacon and René Descartes... rejected Aristotle's scientific assumptions. They challenged the scholarly traditions of the medieval universities that sought to make the physical world fit in with the teachings of the Church. Instead, they stressed experimentation and observation. Bacon and Descartes each devoted himself to understanding how truth is determined. In this quest, they differed in their methods. Bacon stressed experimentation and observation. He wanted science to be useful in practical technologies. Descartes emphasized human reasoning as the best road to understanding. In his Discourse on Method (1637), he discarded all traditional authorities and searched for provable knowledge. 'I think, therefore I am,' he declared. His reasoning made him the father of modern philosophy."

Andreas Vesalius

"In 1543, the Flemish physician Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body, the first accurate and detailed study of human anatomy."

Whose work linked physics and astronomy with math

"Isaac Newton... In 1687, he published a book explaining the law of gravity and other workings of the universe. Nature, argued Newton, follows uniform laws. All motion in the universe can be measured and described mathematically."

To avoid heresy, what did Galileo agree to

"Galileo was tried before the Inquisition... Threatened with death unless he withdrew his 'heresies,' Galileo agreed to state publicly in court that Earth stands motionless at the center of the universe. Legend says that as he left the court he muttered, 'And yet it moves.'"