U.S. Constitution Comprehensive Exam Notes

Constitution

A body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed.

U.S. Constitution

The supreme law of the United States, establishing the framework for the federal government and guaranteeing the rights of its citizens. Composed of a Preamble, 7 original Articles, and 27 Amendments.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that power comes from “We the People”.

Limited Government

The principle that government may do only what the Constitution permits; its power is restricted by law, usually a constitution.

Separation of Powers

The division of governmental responsibilities into distinct branches (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) to limit any one branch from exercising the core functions of another.

Checks & Balances

A system that allows each branch of government to amend or veto acts of another branch, effectively limiting the power of any one branch.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to void unconstitutional acts, asserted by Marbury v. Madison (1803).

Federalism

The division of power between national and state levels of government.

Republic

A form of government in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, rather than by a monarch.

Democracy

A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.

Participatory Democracy

A model of democracy in which citizens have the power to make policy decisions and are highly engaged in all levels of political life.

Pluralist Democracy

A theory of democracy that holds that citizen membership in groups is the key to political power, arguing that power is distributed among many diverse interest groups.

Elite Democracy

A theory of democracy that states that a small number of people, usually those who are wealthy or well-educated and from a particular social background, influence political decision-making.

Power

The ability of one person to get another person to act in accordance with the first person’s intentions.

Government

The institutions through which a land and its people are ruled.

Politics

The activities associated with the governance of a country or other area, especially the debate or conflict among individuals or parties having or hoping to achieve power.

Policy

A course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business, or individual.

Legitimacy

The belief that a rule, institution, or leader has the right to govern.

Authority

The perceived right to make decisions and carry them out.

Majoritarian Theory

The theory that government by the majority of the people is the most democratic.

Elite Theory

A theory of the state which seeks to describe and explain the power relationships in modern societies; essentially, the idea is that a small minority holds power and that this minority is accountable to no one.

Bureaucratic Theory

A theory of government and politics that contends that appointed officials of bureaucratic agencies are the ones who ultimately carry out the decisions and shape public policy, and through this, exert power.

Interest Group Theory

A theory of government in which organized groups attempt to influence public policy decisions.

Pluralist Theory

A theory of democracy that views politics as a competition among various interest groups, where no single group dominates, and public policy is a result of bargaining and compromise.

Hyperpluralism

A theory that states that there are too many strong interest groups, leading to a government that is unable to function because groups have too much power to block legislative proposals.

Linkage Institution

Channels or access points through which issues & people’s preferences get on the government’s agenda (e.g., elections, political parties, interest groups, media).

Policymaking Institutions

The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues (e.g., Congress, the Presidency, the Courts, the Bureaucracy).

Policy Gridlock

A condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy, which results in little getting done.

Commerce Clause

The clause that grants Congress power "to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes" (Art. I §8 cl.3).

Necessary and Proper Clause

(Art. I §8 cl.18), also known as the Elastic Clause, granting Congress the power to pass all laws "necessary and proper" for carrying into execution the foregoing powers.

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge to determine the legality of their detention, except in cases of rebellion or invasion.

Supremacy Clause

The clause stating that the Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are "the supreme Law of the Land" (Art. VI).

Declaration of Independence (1776)

A foundational document asserting the American colonies' separation from Britain, articulating philosophical justifications based on natural rights and consent of the governed.

Natural Rights

Inherent rights possessed by all individuals from birth, including "Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness," central to Enlightenment philosophy and the Declaration of Independence.

Consent of the Governed

The principle that a government's authority is legitimate only when it derives from the consent of the people it governs.

Articles of Confederation (1781–1789)

The first governing document of the U.S., establishing a loose confederation of states with a weak central government, highlighting issues like lack of national taxing power and inability to enforce laws.

Shays's Rebellion (1786–1787)

An armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting debt collection and foreclosures, demonstrating the severe weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger national government to maintain order.

Factions

Groups of citizens, identified by James Madison in Federalist No. 10, united by a common interest or passion that might act adverse to the rights of others or the public good.

Virginia Plan

Proposed at the Constitutional Convention by James Madison, advocating for a strong national government with a bicameral legislature where representation would be proportional to state population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed at the Constitutional Convention by William Paterson, suggesting a unicameral legislature with equal representation for each state, favoring smaller states.

Connecticut Compromise (Great Compromise)

Resolved the debate between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention by creating a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives (proportional representation) and the Senate (equal representation per state).

Federalists

Proponents of the U.S. Constitution during its ratification, advocating for a strong central government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution's ratification, fearing it would create an overly powerful central government that could infringe on state and individual liberties.

The Federalist Papers (1787–88)

A series of 85 essays, written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, arguing in favor of the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, added to protect individual liberties and address Anti-Federalist concerns about the lack of specific rights protections.

The clause (Art. I §2) stating that for apportionment & direct taxes, each enslaved person counted as frac{3}{5} of a free person.