INTROPSYTATS (marj)

Statistics

It defines to the body of principles and procedures developed for the collection, organization, summarization, presentation and analysis of numerical data

Statistical Analysis in Psychology

It involves collecting and analyzing data to discover patterns and trends

Why psychologists use statistical analysis?

- to find ways to interpret and draw conclusions from their data

- to test whether the data from an experiment supports or rejects their hypothesis

1. Descriptive Statistics

2. Inferential Statistics

TYPES OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Descriptive Statistics

It refers to the methods employed in summarizing the obtained data into frequency distribution,percentage distribution, measures of central tendency, etc. Its objective is to summarize some of the important features of a set of test scores.

Imferential Statistics

It refers to the methods utilized in making and evaluation generalization from the obtained test scores. It includes interval estimation and hypothesis testing such as t-test, z-test, chi square test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). - CAUSE AND EFFECTS

1. Discrete Scale

2. Continuous Scale

What are the Scales of Measurement?

Measurement

the act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of things according to rules.

Scale

A set of numbers whose properties model empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned

Discrete Scale

It contains numeric data that have a finite number of possible values and can only be whole numbers.

Continuous Scale

These are numerical data that can theoretically be measured in infinitely small units

Error

It is the collective influence of all of the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured by the test or measurement

1. Independent Variables

2. Dependent Variables

What are the types of variables?

Independent Variable

Sometimes called as the predictor, is a variable that can be manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Sometimes called as the outcome, is a variable that measures the effect of the independent variable.

Manifest Variable

These are variables that can be directly measured or observe

Latent Variables

These are variables that cannot be directly measured and needs a manifest variable assigned to it as an indicator

Research

It involves the systematic and scientific gathering, analysis, classification, organization, presentation, and interpretation of data. This rigorous approach serves to address problems, make predictions, discover truths, and ultimately contribute to the advancement and preservation of human well-being.

1. Statistics helps the researcher in making his research design

2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his research instruments.

3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make them appropriate for study.

4. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to raw data hence, are used test the hypotheses.

5. Statistical methods determine the level of significance of he research findings.

Role of Statistics in Research

1. Primary Data

2. Secondary Data

What are the classification of data?

Primary Data

These are gathered from original sources and direct or first-hand experiences.

Secondary Data

These are gathered from secondary sources such as books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, published articles, magazines, newspapers, unpublished theses and dissertations, manuscripts etc.

1. Questionnaire/ Tests

2. Interview

3. Observation

4. Registration

5. Experiment

6. Library

7. Other mechanical tools

WHAT ARE THE INSTRUMENTS FOR COLLECTING DATA?

1. Must be valid and reliable

2. Must be based upon the conceptual framework

3. Must gather data that would test the hypotheses or answer the questions or problems under investigation

4. Must be as objective as possible

5. Must be unequivocal

6. The directions to accomplish the instrument must be clear and definite.

7. If the instrument is a mechanical device, it must be the best brand and the latest design.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Questionnaire

An instrument composed of carefully formulated questions intended to elicit information from a designated group of respondents, known as the target population, for the purpose of gathering data relevant to a specific research objective.

1. Selected-response format

a. Multiple-choice format

✓stem

✓correct alternative

✓distractors or foils

b.Matching Item

✓Premise

✓Responses

c. True-False Item

2. Constructed-Response Format

a. Completion Item

b. Short-answer item

c. Essay Item

Types of Questionnaire

MIMWERPF

1. Making research in the library

2. Interviewing knowledgeable people

3. Mastering the guidelines

4. Writing the questionnaire

5. Editing the questionnaire

6. Rewriting the questionnaire

7. Pretesting the questionnaire

8. Writing the questionnaire in its final form

Advantages:

1. Easy to construct

2. Easy distribution and inexpensive

3. Respondent’s replies are of his own

4. Confidential information may be given free

5. Tabulation of responses is easy

6. Respondents can fill out the questionnaire at their own convenience

7. More accurate replies may be given

Advantages of Questionnaire

1. It cannot be used with illiterates

2. Some or many respondents may not return the questionnaire

3. A respondent may give a wrong information

4. Respondents may leave some or many items unanswered

5. Some questions or items may be vague to the respondents

6. Number of choices may be very limited

Disadvantages of Questionnaire

Interview

It is verbal interaction between two or more persons

Interviewer

They asks questions to gather information

Interviewee

They supplies the information asked for

1. Structured

2. Unstructured

3. Semi-structured

Types of Classes of Interview

Struct

The interviewer is not allowed to change the specific wordings of the questions in the interview instruments.

Unstructured

The interviewer may revise or explain the questions as he sees fit depending upon the situation.

Semi-structured

There are listed major questions to be asked and once they are asked and answered, the interviewer is free to ask any question as he sees fit depending upon the situation.

1. One on One Interview

2. Group Interview

3. Panel Interview

4. Serial Interview

Types of Classes of Interview (depending on the number of people)

1. Preparatory step

2. Making a survey of the specific places of interviews

3. Establishing rapport

4. Carrying out the interview

5. Recording the interview

6. Closing the interview

Steps in conducting interview

1. Avoid forcing an interview upon a respondent

2. Avoid arguing

3. Avoid pressing unduly the respondent for a reply

4. Avoid using unfamiliar language to the interviewee

5. Avoid talking about things not related to the topic of the interview

6. Avoid embarrassing the interviewee

7. Avoid appearing too high in social status

8. Avoid conducting the interview in an unholy hour

What to avoid in interviews?

1. It yields a more complete and valid information

2. It can be used with all kinds of people

3. Any vague point can be clarified at once

4. Only the interviewee can make a reply

5. Subliminal cues may be observed by the interviewer

6. There is flexibility

Advantages of Interview

1. Some respondents are hard to contact

2. It is expensive

3. Some responses may be inaccurate

4. It is time consuming

5. Important data may be withheld

6. Some bias may be introduced

7. Standardization of questions and responses may be lessened.

Disadvantages of Interview

Observation

It is gathering data by means of the senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. It is much used in studying overt behavior.

1. To gather empirical data difficult to gather by other means

2. To gather data to supplement or to verify data gathered by other means

3. To gather data which can be obtained only thru observation

4. To gather directly primary or first-hand information

5. To gather data thru experimentation

Purposes of Observation

1. Participant and nonparticipant observation

2. Structured and unstructured observation

3. Controlled and uncontrolled observation

Types of Observation

Nonparticipant Observation

The observer is a bystander using his five senses in gathering data

Participant Observation

The observer engages himself in the activities of the group observed.

Structured Observation

The items of a variable to be observed are specified and listed down

Unstructured Observation

Any object, condition, situation, or behavior that is relevant to the research investigation is included in the observation.

Controlled Observation

It is used in experimental studies, in which the experimental and nonexperimental variables are manipulated and controlled by the experimenter.

Uncontrolled Observation

No attempt is made to control the variables to be observed.

1. The information gathered is more accurate, valid and reliable.

2. Observation can be made as long and as many times it is needed.

3. Observation is the only technique of collecting data from inanimate objects and nonverbal behavior.

4. The subjects of the inquiry can be observed in their natural setting.

5. Observation results can be checked and verified.

Advantages of Observation

Controlled

It is the process of listing down data of the same kind in some systematic manner for record purposes.

1. Nominal

2. Ordinal

3. Interval

4. Ratio

Scales of Measurement (N.O.I.R)

Nominal Scales

Scales of measurement that involves classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics, where all things must be placed into mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories

Ordinal Scales

Scales of measurement that involves classification and rank ordering on some characteristics

Interval Scales

Scales of measurement that each unit on the scale is equal to any other unit on the scale.

Ratio Scales

Scales of measurement that all mathematical operations can be performed.

Identity

Property of Nominal Scales

Identity, Magnitude and Equal Interval

Properties of Interval Scales

Identity and Magnitude

Properties of Ordinal Scales

Identity, Magnitude, Equal Interval and Absolute Zero

Properties of Ratio Scales

Distribution

It refers to as a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study

Raw score

It is a straightforward, unmodified counting of performance that is usually numerical.

Ex. Number of items responded correctly on an achievement test

Frequency Distribution

All scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred. Scores might be listed in a tabular or graphic form.

1. Simple Frequency Distribution

2. Grouped Frequency Distribution

Types of Frequency Distribution

Simple Frequency Distribution

What type of Frequency Distribution is this?

Grouped Frequency Distribution

What type of Frequency Distribution is this?

Graph

It is a diagram or chart composed of lines, points, bars, or other symbols that describe and illustrate data

1. Histogram

2. Bar Graph

3. Frequency Polygon

3 Types of Graph

Histogram

It is a graph with vertical lines drawn at the true limits of each test score (or class interval, forming a series of contiguous rectangles.

Bar Graph

A graph that numbers indicative of frequency appear on the y-axis, and reference to some categorization appears on the x-axis.

Frequency Polygon

It is a continuous line connecting the points where test scores or class intervals meet frequencies.

Histogram

What type of graph is this?

Frequency Polygon

What type of graph is this?

Bar Graph

What type of graph is this?