Psychology gender bias definitions

Gender bias

The tendency to favor one gender over another, often leading to unequal treatment or misrepresentation in various contexts, including education, employment, and media.

The differential treatment and/or representation of male and females, based on stereotypes and not real differences 

Alpha bias

The exaggeration of differences between genders, often portraying one gender as superior.

Beta bias

Refers to theories which ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings of males can apply equally to females. This can lead to misinterpretation of women's experiences and needs in psychological research and practice.

• Often happens when findings obtained from men and applied to women without additional validation

Andocentrism

Theories which are centred on, or focused on, males.

• Taking male thinking/behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when it is different​ 

Gynocentrism

Theories which are centred on, or focused on, females. 

Enculturation

Enculturation is the manner in which we learn the behaviours that are appropriate for our own culture, so understanding how we adopt the "appropriate" gender behaviours for our culture is done through enculturation. 

This process involves the transmission of cultural norms and values, influencing individuals' understanding of gender roles.

Kohlberg’s (1958) Moral Theory of Development

Kohlberg suggested that moral reasoning develops in much the same way as Paiget suggested all kinds of reasoning develops. Namely, as people get older, they become more sophisticated in their reasoning abilities. To investigate this idea, he conducted a longitudinal study which began with 72 males aged 10-16 from Chicago. He presented them with stories Involving moral dilemmas and studles their responses to see if there were any patterns in the ways in which they made sense of the dilemmas. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning from their responses, each one more advanced than the next. 

Kohlberg's theory was later applied to girls and women. They were presented with the same moral dilemmas, asked the same questions, and their responses were all coded In the same way. On average, they performed less well than the boys and men. For example, In one study, only 18% of females compared with 28% of males were able to reason at the highest level. The average female only reached Stage 3, whereas the average male made it to Stage 4. It appeared that girls and women were less morally developed than men. 

 

Gilligan

What annoyed psychologist Carol Gilligan was that by applying Kohlberg’s principles, women appeared to be inferior moral reasoners. Gilligan interviewed 29 women between the ages 15-33 who were attending counselling sessions about whether or not to abort an unwanted pregnancy. There were therefore facing moral dilemmas of their own. On the basis of these interviews, Gilligan claimed that women’s moral reasoning was directed by a care orientation rather than justice orientation. This distinction can be clearly seen in by comparing Kohlberg’s stages to Gilligan’s. For Kohlberg, Stage 6 is the most advanced form of moral thinking—at this stage people base their reasoning on universal, ethical principles which they themselves have chosen. Gilligan views this as a male way of thinking. Gilligan claimed that women base their decision not on abstract principles but on the feelings of real, concrete people, such as family and friends

Universal

In the context of gender studies and psychology, 'universal' refers to principles, theories, or findings that are believed to apply across all cultures and genders. It suggests that certain patterns of behavior, thought processes, or moral reasoning are common to all humans, regardless of their cultural background or gender identity. However, the concept of universality is often debated, especially when considering the ways in which different cultures may shape gender roles and experiences distinctly. It raises questions about the extent to which observed similarities can indeed be considered universal, versus being phenomena influenced by cultural and societal contexts.