Comprehensive Guide to Speech Acts and Communication Strategies in Oral Communication

Speech acts

Regard language as a sort of action instead of as a medium for conveying and expressing ideas.

Speech Act Theory

Proposed by John Langshaw Austin in 1962, further developed by John Rogers Searle in 1969.

Locutionary

Act of producing meaningful utterance; actual words being spoken.

Utterance

Word or string of words said that may not have a particular meaning.

Propositional

Utterance performed when referring or predicating in an utterance.

Illocutionary

The meaning one wishes to communicate or convey; the act that a speaker performs in saying the utterance.

Expressives

Express a speaker's emotions and attitudes toward a particular situation.

Declarations

Bring about a change in the situation upon being uttered.

Assertives

Convey information regarding something.

Directives

Cause the individual being addressed to do a particular action.

Commissives

Commit the speaker to doing a particular action in the future.

Perlocutionary

Result or effect produced by the utterance in the given context.

Communication strategies

Plan of action or a technique that a communicator uses in order to help make the communication process successful.

Nomination

Act of the speaker wherein he or she opens and establishes a topic in the conversation or discussion.

Restriction

Limiting what the participants can contribute to the conversation or discussion.

Turn-taking

Process in which a participant stops speaking and yields the floor to another participant so he or she can speak.

Topic control

Helps the speaker keep the conversation focused on one central idea.

Topic shifting

A new topic is introduced by the speaker; allows the speaker to move the conversation in a different direction.

Repair

Set of practices whereby a participant interrupts the ongoing course of action to attend to possible trouble in speaking, hearing, or understanding the talk.

Termination

Participants' use of expressions to end the conversation.

Social Relationships

Determine the specific role of the participants.

Higher authorities

Who are assigned to control the flow of the conversation.

Lower authorities

Participants who start as listeners and are then nominated to be speakers when called on by the higher authorities.

Environment

Setting of the conversation.

One-on-one communication

Communication situations in which there are only two participants.

Group communication

Communication situations in which there are two or more participants.

Guidelines for nomination & restriction

The main speaker should state the topic that will be discussed.

Keep-turn

Suggests that a speaker must not stop until they fulfill their purpose in a conversation.

Release-turn

Suggests that a speaker is finished talking and is ready to yield the floor to another person to take his or her turn.

Take-turn

Suggests that another participant can take the role of the speaker.

Intonation

Falling intonation indicates that a speaker is about to end his or her turn, while rising intonation implies that a speaker is about to reach the climax of their point.

Verbal cues

May suggest that a speaker wants to yield or to keep his or her turn.

Nonverbal cues

Gestures that show that a participant wants to take the floor or speak.

Sentence

Sentential topic; refers to the main idea or focus of a sentence; specific.

Discourse

Refers to the topic of the conversation as a whole; general.

Guidelines for topic control

Introduce clearly the scope and context of the topic. Explain the reason for limiting the discussion to a certain topic. Take note of the speaker's verbal cues that represent the communication strategy.

Speaking topically

When the listener concentrates on some phrases from the last statement mentioned by the speaker.

Speaking on the topic

When the listener concentrates on a word, but the newly introduced idea may not be related to the context of the topic.

Guidelines for topic shifting

Use transitional signals to establish the connection of the new topic to the one that is currently being discussed. Emphasize when the point of the shifting is for clarification or elaboration. Establish unity of ideas in speech by shifting to different but related topics.

Violations

Unnecessary acts of participants that often cause a misunderstanding or a delay in the process or flow of the discussion.

Grabbing the floor

Interruption; when a speaker is not able to fulfill his or her purpose because a participant takes over the role of being a speaker.

Overlapping

When both of the participants talk simultaneously.

Hogging the floor

When the speaker continues speaking and ignores others who try to join or take over the discussion.

Being silent

Dead air; when no one wants to speak or take over the discussion.

Trouble in speaking, hearing or understanding

Includes improper articulations, use of the wrong word, failing to hear or be heard, incorrect understanding by the listener, and trouble on the part of the recipient to understand.

Types of repair

Self-initiated, self-repair; Other-initiated, self-repair; Self-initiated, other-repair; Other-initiated, other-repair.

Guidelines for repair & termination

Recognize the violation. Shift back to the main topic. Ask leading questions to let other participants know that they have returned to the original topic.

Public speaking

The act of speaking in front of a sizeable number of people, involves a single speaker and an audience.

Expository or Informative

Aims to provide the audience with information about a topic or to expand their knowledge about a topic with which they are already familiar.

Types of informative speech

Descriptive; provides a vivid picture of a person, a place, or an object; Explanation; explains or defines a concept, term, or an abstract topic.

Demonstration

presents information about how to do something or how something is done; gives the audience detailed information of a certain process

Reportorial

describes or explains an event or an issue that is interesting, significant, or unusual. Helps explain to the audience what and why it happened, and what resulted from the event.

Characteristics of an informative speech

Credible, Accurate, Clear, and Memorable

Persuasive

aims to influence the audience to accept the speaker's position or stand on an issue.

Convincing

the speaker attempts to convince the audience to adopt his or her way of thinking or to change the way they think about things.

Actuation

designed to urge the audience to take a particular action; the speaker seeks to persuade the audience to start doing the action now.

Ethos

appeal to the speaker's credibility or authority as perceived by the audience

Pathos

appeal to the audience's emotion

Logos

appeal to logic or reason

Guidelines in writing a persuasive speech

Determine your goal. Know your audience. Organize the information. Provide strong evidence.

Entertainment

aims to amuse audience members and put them in a jovial mood.

Guidelines in writing an entertainment speech

Know your audience. Decide on a topic or theme. Start with an attention-grabber. Use simple language and vivid descriptions. Use humor effectively. Use appropriate nonverbal cues.

Manuscript

done when a speaker reads a prepared text or manuscript to the audience.

Public figures

usually constrained by a hectic schedule and sometimes require speechwriters to write a speech on their behalf.

Media personalities

speakers on radio and television conform with time limits. Because of this, they have to critically choose and refine the words of their speech in advance.

Spokespersons

require a great deal of contemplation and preparation. Since they represent the organization, careful construction and delivery of speech are essential.

Guidelines in reading from a manuscript

Outline and write your speech well. Format your speech properly. Practice your speech. Vary your voice. Look at the audience from time to time.

Memorized

requires you to commit your speech to memory.

Tips on delivering a memorized speech

Keep it short. Practice. Visualize. Project your voice. Use pauses appropriately.

Impromptu

delivered with very little or no preparation. It is generally brief and unrehearsed since the speaker does not have time to practice the speech.

Strategies in organizing an impromptu speech

Opening-Rule of Three-Clincher, Past-Present-Future, Point-Reason-Example/Explanation-Point.

Tips on delivering an impromptu speech

Think first before speaking. Consider the three major parts of a speech. Identify your main point. Use signposts. Keep your speech short. Be confident.

Extemporaneous

delivered with the speaker preparing a speech outline or notes beforehand.

Steps in studying your extemporaneous topic

Identify the type of extemporaneous question that you have to answer. Determine if your topic is informative or persuasive. Stick to your topic and look at all sides and angles of the problem.

Pointers in preparing and delivering an extemporaneous speech

Prepare the outline or notes. Rehearse your speech using your outline or notes. Speak in a natural manner. Pay attention to the audience's nonverbal cues.