Criminology Exam 1

Cross-cultural consistency

The pattern where men commit the vast majority of homicides in virtually every country, suggesting it is not solely due to local cultural norms.

social role theories

Theories suggesting men's higher aggression is due to evolved physical differences, which may not fully account for varying aggression gaps across different cultures.

Early onset of sex differences

The phenomenon where sex differences in physical aggression appear early in life, even before children internalize gender expectations.

Young male syndrome

The idea that male aggression increases markedly at puberty and then declines over the lifespan, paralleling testosterone levels.

Cross-species parallels

The observation that many nonhuman animal species exhibit similar sex differences in lethal aggression, suggesting an evolutionary explanation.

Role of culture is nonzero but not sufficient

The acknowledgment that while social forces influence aggression, attributing all sex differences to culture can lead to inappropriate solutions.

Implications for violence reduction

Understanding the mix of biological and cultural causes is essential for designing effective interventions for violence.

Balance view (nature + nurture)

An orientation that suggests both biological and social influences are important in understanding aggression, but may underemphasize the power of social forces.

Biological explanations

These explanations do not imply determinism, but rather suggest probabilities and predispositions regarding behavior.

Complexity of social influences

The challenges in disentangling the effects of social and cultural factors, which can amplify or suppress baseline aggressive tendencies.

Genetic Basis for Crime

The relationship between genetic factors and criminal behavior, exploring how biology influences crime alongside environmental factors.

NIH Withdrawal of Funding

The National Institutes of Health retracted funds for a conference on genetics and crime due to backlash against concerns about eugenics and racism.

Gene-Environment Interaction

The concept that while genetics may predispose individuals towards certain behaviors, environmental factors can significantly influence the expression of those tendencies.

Self-Control and Empathy

Behavior traits that current research identifies as significant in criminal decision-making; the debate exists over the influence of genetic versus environmental factors.

Long-Term New Zealand Study

A cohort study revealing a correlation between childhood self-control and later criminal convictions; highlights that predispositions alone do not determine fate.

Ethical Considerations in Genetics and Crime

Concerns about the potential misuse of genetic information in influencing sentencing, rehabilitation, and the stigma attached to biological markers linked to criminal behavior.

Troy Duster's Critique

A critique arguing that criminological research should examine criminal behaviors across all societal classes, not just focus on disadvantaged minorities.

Pragmatic Understanding

The need for a comprehensive understanding of how genetics and environment interact to inform policies and interventions related to criminal behavior.

Kevin Beaver's Research Outcomes

Findings that indicate genetics explain little violence in boys without risk factors, while those with risk factors show a strong link between genetics and violent behavior.

Research Trends in Academia

An observed resurgence of interest in genetics within criminology among younger scholars, despite a scarcity of publications on the topic.

Dramatic Fallacy

A misconception regarding crime that suggests media exaggeration of crime events.

Crime Triangle

A concept that includes the elements of offender, target, and lack of guardianship as necessary for crime to occur.

Rational Actors

The idea that offenders make logical choices based on their constraints and available opportunities.

Convergent Cities

Urban areas that exhibit increased interactions, potentially leading to heightened crime opportunities.

Peer Groups

Social groups that influence the risk of teenage crime through dynamics such as unsupervised time.

Big Gang Theory

A theory that explores the causes and public perceptions of gangs, often blurring the distinction between cause and image.

Multiplier Effects

The phenomenon where crime leads to further criminal activities, creating a cycle of crime.

Situational Crime Prevention

Strategies aimed at reducing crime by altering the environment to limit opportunities.

Local Environmental Design

Design approaches focused on community building and securing neighborhood spaces to deter crime.

Cultural Lag Theory

The concept that technological advancements often outpace societal adaptations, creating opportunities for crime.

Routine Activity Theory

A theory positing that crime is dependent on motivated offenders, suitable targets, and a lack of capable guardians.

Descriptive Emphasis

The focus on how crime occurs and identifying patterns in criminal behavior.

Prescriptive Emphasis

The focus on what can be done through design, policy, and local settings to reduce crime.

Strain Theory

Posits that people turn to crime when they experience stress or strain, leading to frustration and maladaptive coping mechanisms.

General Strain Theory

Expands on strain theory by incorporating different types of strain leading to crime, emphasizing failure to achieve goals and negative stimuli.

Social Learning Theory

The theory that crime is learned predominantly through social interactions and reinforcements from peers and the environment.

Differential Reinforcement

Criminal behavior is cultivated when rewards for crime outweigh the punishments.

Control Theory

Examines why individuals conform to social norms rather than why they commit crimes, focusing on mechanisms that limit criminal behavior.

Labeling Theory

Focuses on the societal reactions to crime, suggesting that labels can intensify criminal behavior due to social stigmatization.

Social Disorganization Theory

Analyzes crime at the community level, exploring why some neighborhoods have higher crime rates based on characteristics like economic deprivation.

Critical Theories

Include Marxist, Institutional Anomie, and Feminist theories that examine the impact of social class, economic pressures, and gender roles on crime.

Integrated Theories

Synthesize various perspectives on crime causation, highlighting the interplay between strain, social learning, and control factors.

Routine Activities Theory

Suggests crime likelihood increases when motivated offenders meet attractive targets without capable guardians.

Rational Choice Perspective

Evaluates situational factors affecting crime decisions, focusing on cost-benefit analyses in criminal behavior.

Fudge Factor

An internal threshold that allows people to cheat just enough to gain benefits without seeing themselves as dishonest.

Moral Reminders

Techniques such as recalling moral codes that reduce cheating behavior by making one's moral identity salient.

Distance from the Object of Cheating

The tendency for people to cheat more when the cheating involves something removed from direct cash, as it is easier to rationalize.

In-Group Effects

The influence on individuals to cheat more if they observe a member of their group cheating.

Nonlinear Incentives

The concept that increasing rewards or reducing risks does not always lead to a proportional increase in cheating.

Social Norms

Behavioral standards that can influence individuals’ choices and the likelihood of engaging in dishonest acts.

Psychological Distance

The cognitive separation between the action of cheating and its consequences, which can impact the decision to cheat.