Chapter 11: Motivation

Motivation

The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors

Instinct Theory (Evolutionary Perspective)

Our behavior is motivated by our inborn automated/primal behaviors

Drive Reduction Theory

Our behavior is motivated by our biological need to reduce internal physiological drives and maintain homeostasis; pushed by primary (physiological) and secondary (interest) drives, pulled by incentives

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

Optimal Arousal Theory

Our behavior is motivated by seeking an optimum level of arousal or stimulation (levels may vary)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal

Incentive Theory

Motivation results from a positive or negative environmental stimuli that pull the organism in certain directions, such as the pursuit of rewards or the avoidance of punishments

Cognitive Theory

Motivation is affected by attributions on behavior, or how we interpret and think about our own or others’ actions

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Our behavior is motivated by various levels of needs in a five-tier pyramid, beginning with lower-level physiological and safety needs that must first be satisfied, then goes to higher-level social, self-esteem, actualization, and meaning needs

Maslow’s Self Transcendence Needs (6)

Need to find meaning and identity beyond the self

Maslow’s Self Actualization Needs (5)

Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential; need to pursue meaningful goals and personal growth

Maslow’s Esteem Needs (4)

Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, independence, recognition, and respect from others

Maslow’s Belongingness and Love Needs (3)

Need social connections and emotional bonds; to love and be loved; to belong and be accepted; to avoid loneliness and alienation

Maslow’s Safety Needs (2)

Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, stable, protected, and assured

Maslow’s Physiological Needs (1)

Need to satisfy basic biological requirements, such as air, water, food, shelter, and sleep

Intrinsic Motivators

Internal rewards that drive behavior, such as enjoyment, satisfaction, fulfillment, interest

Extrinsic Motivators

External rewards that drive behavior, such as praise, grades, money, or other tangible rewards/consequences

Biological Basis of Hunger

Hunger does not come from our stomach, it comes from the hypothalamus

Lateral Hypothalamus

The sides of the hypothalamus, which brings on hunger (stimulation = hunger; lesion = never feel hungry again)

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

The lower-mid hypothalamus, which depresses hunger (stimulation = feel full; lesion = never feel full again)

Set Point Theory

The point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set; the hypothalamus maintains a stable weight; body falls below weight = increase in hunger and lowered metabolic rate to restore lost weight

Achievement Motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard (includes intrinsic and extrinsic motivation)

Body Mass Index (BMI)

A numerical value derived from an individual’s weight and height, but does not account for muscle mass and overall health

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

The amount of energy an individual’s body needs to maintain basic physiological functions, which can determine how many calories should be consumed daily

Fat Cells

Cells that store energy in the form of fat; cells may shrink, but numbers will never decrease (obese = numerous & larger; lose weight = numerous & smaller)

Biofeedback

Technique of gaining greater awareness of many physiological functions of one’s body by using electronics or other instruments to help monitor health (heart rate, breathing, etc)

Taste Aversion (Garcia Effect)

A learned avoidance of a specific taste or flavor due to its association with a negative experience

Glucose

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues (low level = hungry)

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and starves themselves below 85% of their normal body weight; often have a distorted body image and a relentless pursuit of thinness

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binging (eating large amounts of food) followed by purging (getting rid of the food) in fear of gaining weight

Binging

The consumption of a large amount of food within a short period, often accompanied by a sense of loss of control

Purging

The compensation for the consumption of large amounts of food, often in them form of self-induced vomiting, excessive exercise, or the use of laxatives

Body Chemistry

The complex biochemical processes within the body that regulate physiological functions, including orexin, ghrelin, insulin, leptin, and PYY

Orexin

A neuropeptide produced in the hypothalamus that regulates alertness and increases hunger

Ghrelin

A hormone produced in the stomach that regulates appetite and increases hunger

Insulin

A hormone produced by the pancreas that lowers blood sugar levels and increases hunger

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that regulate energy balance and decreases hunger

PYY (Peptide YY)

A hormone produced by in the digestive tract that regulates food intake and decreases hunger

Binge Eating Disorder (Obesity)

Significant binge-eating episodes (followed by distress, disgust, or guilt) without the compensatory purging in bulimia nervosa, which causes health issues

Pica

A disorder characterized by abnormal consumption of non-nutritive, non-food substances

Avoidant/Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID)

A feeding and eating disorder characterized by persistent avoidance or restriction of food intake, often associated with sensory sensitivity, or lack of interest in eating

Other Specified Feeding or Eating Disorder (OSFED)

A category within eating disorders that includes individuals who have disordered eating patterns but do not meet the specific criteria for most eating disorders

Orthorexia

An eating disorder characterized by an obsessive focus on consuming only healthy or “pure” foods

Night Eating Syndrome (NES)

An eating disorder characterized by a pattern of consuming a significant portion of daily food intake during the nighttime, often waking up to eat

Unit Bias

A cognitive tendency for individuals to consume a specific portion of food, often defined by social norms, without regard for their actual hunger or nutritional needs

Flow

A completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Personnel Psychology

A subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

Organizational Psychology

A subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

Structured Interviews

Interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales

Task Leadership

Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

Social Leadership

Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Theory X Management (McGregor)

Represents a traditional and authoritarian approach to managing employees; managers assume that employees inherently dislike work, avoid responsibility, lack ambition, and need to be closely supervised

Theory Y Management (McGregor)

Represents a participative and collaborative leadership style to managing employees; managers assume that employees are inherently motivated, enjoy their work, seek responsibility, and can be self-directed

Grit

A combination of passion and perseverance towards long-term goals; a key factor in achieving success and overcoming challenges

Neophobia

The fear or aversion to new or unfamiliar things; an individual's reluctance or resistance to try new foods, experiences, or adopt unfamiliar ideas

360-Degree Feedback

A performance appraisal method that involves collecting feedback from various sources to provide a comprehensive view of an individual's skills and behaviors

Cognitive Dissonance

The mental discomfort or tension that arises when an individual holds two or more conflicting beliefs (or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs); may change their beliefs to restore consistency