AP Psychology (All Units)

memory

persistence of learning over time through encoding, storing, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of putting information into the memory system

storage

the retention of encoded material over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information

The Atkinson Schiffron 3-Stage Model (1968)

belief that information is processed from sensory memory, to short term memory, to long term memory

iconic memory

visual sensory memory (less than 1 second)
(you can glimpse an "icon")

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory (lasts a few seconds)

short term memory (STM)

few items (7 +/- 2 seconds) encoded briefly that lasts about 30 seconds. goes to LTM or is forgotten

long term memory (LTM)

relatively permanent encoded information that is limitless

effortful processing

attention and conscious effort (rehearsal)

explicit memories

(declarative memories) memory or facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

automatic proccessing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (example: how many times a commercial is played and how often you notice)

implicit memory

(nondeclaritive memory) retention independent of conscious recall (impossible to explain)

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units. often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those using vivid imagery and organizational devices (example: guy cheating at the card game at the casino)

acronym

(type of chunking) typically 1st letter technique (example: remembering the solar systems)

peg-word system

pre-memorizing a list of words that are easy to associate with the numbers they represent (example: grocery list)

method of Loci

method of memorizing info by placing each item to be remembered at a point along an imaginary journey (example: cheating guy at the casino)

spacing effect

people encode more effectively when study is distributed evenly vs. a massive study session

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

shallow proccessing

encoding on a basic level based on structure and appearance of words

deep processing

encoding based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield best retention

self-reference effect

people more easily remember material that is personally meaningful

hippocampus

associated with declarative memory

flashbulb memory

clear moment, emotionally significant moment or event (associated with the amygdala)

infantile amnesia

conscious memories of first three years are blank

cerebellum

associated with nondeclararitive memory

procedural memories

motor and cognitive skills

semantic memories

general facts and knowledge of the world

long term potentiation

increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

recall

retrieving information from memory

recognition

identifying the target from possible targets (example: multiple choice quiz)

retrieval cues

stimuli that help retrieve a certain memory

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of a particular association with a memory

state-dependent memory

what we learn in one state (drunk or sober) may be more easily recalled in that state

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood (sad or happy)

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories (explicit memories)

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve information from the past (explicit memories)

encoding failure

we cannot remember what we do not encode

storage decay

(Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve) forgetting initially rapid then levels off

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of NEW information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of OLD information

repression

Freud theory
unconsciously banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

source misattribution

deja vu

"I've experienced this before"

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category (your personal representation)

creativity

the ability to produce new, unusual, or valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows available problem solutions to determine the SINGLE BEST solution (example: intelligence tests)

divergent thinking

expands number of possible problem solutions (example: creativity tests)

trial and error

repeated and varied attempts which are continued until success

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure
grantees solving, is time consuming, and exhausts all possibilities

heuristic

rule-of-thumb strategy, make judgement and solve problems efficiently, a short cut

insight

a sudden realization of a problems solution

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms ones perceptions

fixation

an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective (this impedes problem solving)

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it has worked in the past

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions (example: brick)

repressentativeness heuristics

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototypes

availability heuristics

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory. If it comes to mind easily we presume it is common

overconfidence effect

overestimate the accuracy of your belief or judgments

framing

the way an issue is posed significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed

belief perseverance

clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited (example: supporting a losing team)

phonemes

smallest distinctive sound unit (l, y, ch)

morphemes

smallest unit of meaning in a language (a, i, cat)

grammer

system of rules in a language

semantics

set of rules by which we derive meaning in language

syntax

rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

babbling stage

spontaneously utter various sounds

one-word stage

say one word at a time

two-word stage

telegraphic speech, typically 2 words

brocas area

controls language expression

wernickes area

comprehends language and controls reception

aphasia

impairment of language (typically left hemisphere)

inborn universal grammer

(Noam Chomsky) acquisition so fast that it cannot be explained. most of it is unborn (language acquisition device)

Whorf's Linguistic Relativity (Determinism)

idea that language determines the way we think

motivation

need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

drive reduction theory

physiological need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (aim is to achieve homeostasis)

incentives

positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us

optimum arousal theory

people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal

Yerkes-Dodson Law

performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

pyramid of human needs

self-actualism

living up to your fullest, most unique potential

glucose

form of sugar- major source of energy for body tissues
(low levels=hunger)

lateral hypothalamus

brings on hunger
stimulate= animal will begin to eat
lesion= animal will have no interest in food

ventromedial hypothalamus

depresses hunger
stimulate= animal will stop eating
lesion=animal will continuously want to eat

set point theory

hypothalamus= "thermostar" general stable weight
body below weight -> increased hunger, lower metabolism

basal metabolic rate

body's resting rate of energy expenditure

William Masters & Virginia Johnson

sexual response cycle (4 stages)

excitement stage

body is preparing for sex

plateau phase

excitement peaks (breathing quickens, pulse rises, blood pressure rises)

orgasm

muscle contractions
sympathetic nervous system triggered
helps facilitate conception

resolution phase

body returns to unaroused state
parasympathetic nervous system

refractory period

(only in men) resting period after orgasm, during which he cannot achieve another orgasm

testosterone

constant in males
activates sexual behavior
stimulate growth of male sex organs in the fetus and sex characteristic during puberty

estrogen

contributes to female sex characteristics
levels peak during ovulation