Hinduism Final Identification Terms

Nirvāṇa/Nibbāna

In Hinduism, attaining Nirvana “to extinguish” or to “blow out” (often called Moksha) means liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by realizing your true Self (Atman) is one with the universal spirit (Brahman), achieved through overcoming ignorance and desire through paths (margas) such as selfless action (Karma Yoga), loving devotion (Bhakti Yoga), and the path of knowledge (Jnana Yoga), or meditation (Raja Yoga). It's about ending karmic bondage and achieving ultimate freedom and bliss, often through a life lived according to Dharma (duty) and detaching from worldly fruits of actions. Nirvana in Buddhism is the cessation of desire, suffering, and the self (anatman), leading to a state beyond conditioned existence, while Hindu Moksha (or Nirvana) involves realizing the eternal Atman (soul) merges with the universal Brahman, achieving union with the Absolute, emphasizing eternal existence rather than non-existence.

Mārga

Marga means “path,” and refers to the spiritual path to reaching liberation. In Hinduism, marga is a path to Moksha, whereas in Buddhism, Marga is the path to Nirvana, the cessation of dukka/suffering and samsara (the cycle of rebirth). Examples of marga in Hinduism include Jnana yoga (the path of knowledge), Karma yoga (the path of action), and Bhakti yoga (the path of loving devotion), while Buddhism centers on the Noble Eightfold Path to enlightenment, which includes concepts such as right action, right view, and right livelihood, which is a core aspect of the four Noble Truths. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains the concept of marga to the warrior Arjuna through the three main paths or yogas (Bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, and karma yoga). Krishna details Karma Yoga to Arjuna by emphasizing that Arjuna is a warrior and his duty is to fight for righteousness. Krishna uses this to explain that Arjuna must fight without personal desire for victory or fear of killing, but as the fulfillment of his ethical and religious duty.

Upāsaka/Upāsikā

In Hinduism, an Upasaka (masculine) or Upasika (feminine) is a devout worshipper, devotee, or attendant of a specific deity or concept, especially within traditions like Vaishnavism or Shaivism. The term means "to sit close to" one's chosen god. Their practices often center around Bhakti Yoga (the path of devotion) and ritual worship (puja) through offerings such as water, food, fresh flowers, incense (dhupa), and a lighted lamp (deepa or arati). A key example of an Upasaka is Lord Hanuman, the foremost upasaka (devotee) of Lord Rama. While he is a powerful deity and an incarnation of Lord Shiva, his primary identity and a key aspect of his worship (Hanuman Upasana) is his unparalleled devotion and service (bhakti) to Rama and Sita.  

In Buddhism, Upāsaka (male) and Upāsikā (female) are devout lay followers who take refuge in the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha). They observe ethical vows like the Five Precepts, which include no killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or taking intoxicants. They support the monastic community (Sangha), and engage in devotional practices, acting as "attendants" or "those who sit near" the teachings.

Bodhicitta

the mind of "awakening" or "enlightenment," a compassionate and altruistic aspiration to achieve enlightenment not just for oneself, but for the benefit of all sentient beings. It is the motivation behind the bodhisattva path, which seeks to help all others escape suffering by attaining full Buddhahood. Cultivating bodhicitta involves developing boundless love, compassion, and empathy, and transcending self-concern. Bodhicitta, the aspiration for enlightenment for all beings, is central to Mahayana Buddhism, especially in traditions like Tibetan Buddhism.

Bhavacakra

The Bhavacakra, otherwise known as the “wheel of life/existence” is held by the demon of impermanence. It illustrates how suffering is perpetuated by the three poisons: ignorance (the pig), desire/greed (the rooster), and hatred (the snake), whilst also offering a visual guide to achieving Nirvana by following the Buddha’s teachings. It depicts the six realms of existence based on one’s karma. The three higher, more desirable realms include, the Devas/god realm, the Asuras/Demigods realm, and the human realm, which is considered the most valuable for the purpose of attaining liberation, as it offers the best opportunity to hear and practice the Dharma. The three Lower realms include the animal realm, the hungry ghost realm with beings afflicted by insatiable hunger, depicted with large bellies and tiny mouths/throats, and the Naraka/Hell Beings realm, a realm of intense suffering and torment, where beings experience the consequences of extreme hatred and anger. The outer rim of the wheel shows the twelve stages of dependent origination, which show the chain of cause and effect that perpetuates the cycle of existence, starting with ignorance and ending with old age and death. 

Anātman/Anatta

Anātman/Anatta ("No-Self") in Buddhism is the core doctrine that there's no permanent, unchanging soul or essence within us, only a constantly shifting collection of physical and mental states (aggregates) that we mistakenly call "self," which leads to suffering when clung to. It is one of the three marks of existence, alongside Impermanence (anicca) and suffering (Dukkha), and it posits that a person is a constantly changing collection of five aggregates (physical form, feelings, perception, mental formations, and consciousness). It contrasts sharply with Hinduism's Ātman, which posits an eternal, real soul (self) that is one with Brahman, the ultimate reality.

Ganesha (Gaṇeśa)

Ganesha is the elephant-headed Hindu deity with a mouse as his mount. He is known as the Lord of Beginnings and Remover of Obstacles. Ganesha is the son of Shiva and Parvati, revered for wisdom, intellect, good fortune, success, and new ventures. Ganesha derives from non-Aryan worship traditions and is the Guardian deity, often depicted on lintels or pillars of doorways to homes and temples. Ganesha is invoked before any new venture, ritual, or journey for success, clarity, and protection from hindrances.

Sarasvati (Sarasvatī)

Sarasvati translates to “she who is full of juice” and refers to the Hindu Goddess of knowledge, education, wisdom, music, arts, and learning. She is one of the principle goddesses in Hinduism, forming a trinity with Lakshmi and Parvati known as the Tridevi. Sarasvati is often depicted as a graceful woman in white, riding a swan or lotus, and holding a Veena (lute), a book, and prayer beads, representing intellect, purity, harmony, and creative expression. As consort of Brahma, she embodies the creative energy behind the universe, bringing order from chaos and inspiring scholars, musicians, and artists, with her worship peaking during festivals like Vasant Panchami, which celebrates the arrival of spring.

the word “Hinduism”

Hinduism is the world’s oldest religion, characterized as a way of life or a family of religions rather than a single organized faith, originating from the synthesis of ancient Indian civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization and the arrival of the Indo-Aryans around 1500 BCE. The word “Hinduism” comes from the Persian word “Hindu,” a mispronunciation of the Sanskrit word for the Indus River, “Sindhu” and was adopted by the Europeans to describe the people and traditions of that region in the 19th century separate from the faith of Islam. Indian reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy began using "Hinduism" in the 1810s, to describe a reformed, rational, monotheistic faith rooted in the Upanishads, partly to distinguish themselves from Muslims and Christians, even as traditionalists developed terms like "Hindutva" for a distinct Indian identity. 

Orientalism

Orientalism is a Western perspective and construction of ‘the East’ as exotic, mystical, backward, and different, portraying it as primitive, inferior, or superstitious, in contrast to a self-proclaimed superior West. The West, under Orientalism, is viewed as dynamic, rational, technologically superior, and modern in order to justify colonialism and colonization. ‘The East‘ was depicted as feminine, exotic, and irrational by Western scholars. The concept of Orientalism was often portrayed in Western media and film, such as in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984).

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization, extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, and was at its peak from circa 2200-1900 BCE. The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, wheeled transport, and clusters of large, nonresidential buildings. Some scholars believe later Hindu vedic practices were synthesized during the Indus Valley Civilization due to the discovery of various artifacts, such as the Pashupati Seal, A famous seal interpreted as a proto-Shiva, numerous female figurines suggesting a cult of a Mother Goddess, and the “Great Bath” at Mohenjo-Daro, seen as an early form of ritual purification similar to practices in Hinduism.

Veda/Vedas

The Vedas are Hinduism's oldest, most sacred scriptures, meaning "knowledge," comprising four collections, including the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda, of hymns, rituals, prayers, and philosophical insights from the ancient Indo-Aryan (Vedic) people. The Vedas are classified as Shruti “what is heard” literature, meaning they were divinely revealed to ancient sages (rishis) in deep meditation and orally transmitted for millennia before being written in Vedic Sanskrit (c. 1500-500 BCE). They form the bedrock of Hindu thought, guiding dharma (righteous duty) and spiritual life, influencing culture, philosophy, and daily rituals. They praised a wide pantheon of gods, such as fire (Agni), the Sun (Surya and Savitri), dawn (Ushas, a goddess), storms (the Rudras), and rain (Indra). The Rigveda (Veda of Hymns/Knowledge) is the oldest Veda, containing hymns (suktas) praising natural forces and gods like Indra, Agni, and Varuna, emphasizing devotion and cosmic order. The Samaveda (Veda of Melodies), focuses on musical chants and melodies. The Yajurveda (Veda of Rituals/Sacrifice) is a guidebook for priests, containing prose mantras and instructions for performing sacrifices (yajna) and rituals. Lastly, the Atharvaveda (Veda of Charms/Wisdom) deals with healing, charms, incantations, folklore, and magic, often outside the main sacrificial rites. Each of the four Vedas is further divided into four distinct text types, generally corresponding to different stages of life (Ashrama), including the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

Upanishads (Upaniṣads)

Upanishads means to “sit down near a teacher,” referring to the tradition of students or disciples sitting close to a teacher to receive wisdom and knowledge. The Upanishads are ancient Hindu philosophical texts, forming the concluding part (Vedanta) of the Vedas, focusing on profound spiritual wisdom, the nature of reality (Brahman), the self (Atman), karma, rebirth, and liberation (Moksha). Key examples include the Chandogya Upanishad (famous for "Tat Tvam Asi" - "Thou art That"), the Katha Upanishad (story of Nachiketa and Yama), Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (discussing the soul and Brahman), and the Mundaka Upanishad (explaining two kinds of knowledge).

Bhagavad Gita (Bhagavadgītā)

The Bhagavad Gita ("Song of the Lord") is a sacred 700-verse Hindu scripture within the epic Mahabharata, that takes the form of a profound dialogue between Lord Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) and Prince Arjuna. The Gita unfolds at the start of the great Kurukshetra War, where the Pandava prince Arjuna faces his own cousins, uncles, and teachers on the opposing side of the battlefood. Overwhelmed by grief, Arjuna refuses to fight, however, Krishna guides Arjuna through his moral crisis and teaches him duty (Dharma), various paths to spiritual realization, such as karma yoga (path of selfless action), jnana yoga (path of knowledge), and bhakti yoga (path of loving devotion), and the eternal nature of the soul, convincing him to fight by fulfilling his warrior role without attachment to results. Krisha reveals his divine nature to Arjuna and urges him to perform his dharmic duty as a warrior.

Agni/agni

Agni is the Vedic god of fire whom originates from ancient Vedic traditions. Agni is a divine messenger connecting humans and gods, presiding over sacrificial flames, lightning, and the sun, central to rituals like birth, marriage, and death, symbolizing purity, transformation, and digestion. Key rituals include Yajnas (fire sacrifices) for offerings, wedding ceremonies (saptapadi around fire), cremations (guiding the soul), and festivals like Diwali (lamps). Agni is depicted with two heads (one benevolent, one fierce), seven fiery tongues, seven arms, and often three legs, symbolizing his presence in the three worlds (earth, atmosphere, sky). He rides a ram or goat (his vahana) and carries ritualistic objects like a flaming torch, axe, or ladle, representing his role as a messenger delivering offerings from humans to the gods, particularly in weddings and sacrifices. 

moksha (mokṣa)

Moksha is ultimate liberation and freedom from the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara), achieved by realizing one's true divine nature (atman) and merging with the Supreme Reality (Brahman). Moksha translates to liberation, release, or emancipation, and is the final spiritual goal (Purushartha) of Hinduism, ending suffering, ignorance, and attachment, leading to eternal bliss, peace, and union with the divine, often through paths like devotion (Bhakti Yoga), knowledge (Jnana Yoga), or selfless action (Karma Yoga). 

varnashrama-dharma (varṇāśramadharma)

Varnashrama-dharma translates to "duties of the social classes (varnas) and stages of life (ashramas)." Varnashrama-dharma outlines a person’s ethical and social duties based on their varna (class) and ashrama (stage of life) to ensure societal harmony and spiritual growth. The four varnas (social classes) are, Bhramins, the priestly and scholarly class, responsible for spiritual guidance and preserving sacred knowledge; Kshatriyas, the rulers, warriors, and administrators, tasked with protecting society and maintaining order; Vaishyas, the producers including farmers, merchants, and artisans, who create wealth and provide for the community; and the lowest caste, Shudras, the laborers and service providers, who serve the other three varnas. The Four Ashramas (stages of life) consist of the Brahmacharya (Student Stage), which focuses on education, self-control, and discipline under a guru, abstaining from worldly desires; Grihastha (Householder Stage), which Involves marriage, family, earning a living, and fulfilling societal duties, supporting the family and community; Vanaprastha (Forest Dweller/Retiree Stage), a gradual withdrawal from worldly life to focus on spiritual pursuits, often after children are grown, serving as a counselor; and the Sannyasa (Renunciation Stage), which involves complete detachment from worldly life, possessions, and identity, dedicated solely to achieving spiritual liberation (Moksha). The system was designed for men from the top three varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) to progress through all four stages, while Shudras (worker class) and Dalits (untouchables) were excluded, and women also had limitations.

atman (ātman) & brahman

Atman is the individual, eternal soul or true Self, while Brahman is the ultimate, infinite, universal reality, the one divine source of everything; the core teaching, especially in the Upanishads, is that Atman is Brahman ("Tat Tvam Asi" - You are That), meaning the individual soul is identical to the cosmic spirit, and realizing this unity leads to liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of rebirth. 

purusharthas (puruṣārthas)

In Hinduism, Purusharthas are the four goals of human life: Dharma (righteous duty/virtue), Artha (prosperity/wealth), Kama (pleasure/love/desire), and Moksha (liberation/spiritual freedom). They provide a framework for a balanced, meaningful existence, guiding individuals to fulfill worldly responsibilities while striving for ultimate spiritual realization, with Moksha being the supreme goal. Dharma (Righteousness and Duty) is Living according to one's true purpose, moral law, and ethical duties, ensuring individual and cosmic balance. For example, a student diligently studying or a parent raising their family with honesty and care. Artha (Wealth and Prosperity) involves the pursuit of material well-being, financial security, career, and all the resources necessary for a secure and dignified life. Hinduism recognizes the importance of material prosperity, provided it is acquired through honest means and used responsibly to support one's family and community. Kama (Pleasure and Desire) encompasses desire, love, passion, emotions, and the aesthetic enjoyment of life, including intimacy, arts, and music. Kama is a natural and legitimate goal, but its pursuit should be balanced and not violate the principles of dharma or lead to excessive attachment and greed. Moksha (Liberation and Self-Realization) is considered the supreme goal (parama-purushartha), moksha signifies spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and freedom from worldly attachments. It represents self-knowledge, inner peace, and the realization of one's true nature as one with the absolute reality (Brahman). 

samskara (saṃskāra)

Samskara, which means “construction” or “refinement,” refers to sacred life-cycle rituals of vedic tradition, which mark significant life transitions, from conception to death. These rituals aim to purify the individual and guide them through life’s various stages, preparing them for their social and spiritual duties. These are often seen as the 16 main rites of passage (Shodasha Samskaras), guiding a person from conception (Garbhadhana) through education (Upanayana) to marriage (Vivaha) and last rites (Antyeshti), ensuring a life aligned with dharma (duty/righteousness). Examples of rituals include pre-birth and childhood rites, such as the Garbhadhana, a private ritual marking the couple's intention to conceive a child, involving prayers for a healthy and virtuous baby, and Namakarana, the formal naming ceremony, usually held on the eleventh day after birth, where the child's name is chosen based on astrological considerations and announced to family and friends. Other important rites include the Upanayana/sacred thread ceremony where a guru (teacher) accepts a child (traditionally a boy of the first three varnas) for formal Vedic study, marking an "intellectual" or "spiritual" second birth, and Vivaha, the marriage ceremony, considered one of the most important samskaras, marking the entry into the Grihastha (householder) stage of life, with key rituals like Kanyadana and Saptapadi (seven steps around a sacred fire). 

Advaita Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta is a prominent, non-dualistic school of Hindu philosophy, meaning "not-two," asserting that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman). Key teachings focus on realizing this oneness through knowledge (Jnana Yoga), recognizing the world as an illusion (Maya), and attaining liberation (Moksha) by transcending the mistaken sense of separate selfhood, all rooted in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita. A key figure of Advaita Vedanta was Adi Shankara (8th century) who was a pivotal Indian philosopher who taught that liberation (moksha) is achieved not through rituals, but through knowledge and realization of the identity of the Atman and Brahman. Shankara emphasized the importance of Jnana yoga (the path of knowledge) by explaining Maya (illusion) in Advaita Vedanta through the snake and rope analogy where a person mistakes a rope for a venomous snake in dim light, reacting with fear until bright light reveals it's just a rope, teaching that the world (snake) seems real but is an illusion (rope) superimposed on the ultimate reality (Brahman), removed by true knowledge (light). The rope is Brahman, the snake is the perceived world/ego, and the fear/suffering comes from mistaking the illusion for reality.

Krishna

Krishna is a major deity in Hinduism who's name means “dark”. He is revered as the eighth avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu, the preserver god, and in some traditions, as the Supreme Being himself, representing divine love, wisdom, and joy. Krishna is depicted in Hinduism as a charming, dark-skinned (blue/black) deity, often a cowherd playing a flute, wearing peacock feathers, and appearing as a mischievous child (Bala Krishna), a divine lover with Radha, a central figure in epic texts like the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita where he is a wise charioteer, or a supreme God. Followers of Krishna are generally called Vaishnavas or Vaishnavites, members of the broader Hindu tradition centered on Vishnu, but specifically devoted to Krishna as the Supreme Being. Mirabai was a 16th-century mystic poet of the Bhakti movement, known for her intense, personal devotion to Lord Krishna, whom she considered her divine husband and beloved; she expressed this love through around 1,300 devotional songs (bhajans) filled with longing, often depicting herself as a lover pining for her Lord.

avatara (avatāra)

In Hinduism, an Avatāra (descent) is when a deity, most famously Vishnu, takes physical form (human, animal, or hybrid) on Earth to restore cosmic balance, destroy evil, and uphold dharma (righteousness). The most common examples are Vishnu's Dashavatara (ten avatars), which include, the Fish, the Tortoise, the Boar, the Man-Lion, the Dwarf, Parashurama the warrior, Rama (Ramayana), Krishna (seen in the Bhagavad Gita), Buddha, and Kalki.

karma-yoga

Karma Yoga is the path to spiritual liberation through selfless action, where one performs their duty (dharma) without attachment to the results. It is the “yoga of action,” and the practice involves performing one’s responsibilities with dedication, detaching from the outcome, and viewing the work as a form of spiritual service, seeing all actions as offerings. Karma yoga is a central teaching of the Bhagavad Gita, emphasized by Krishna when he introduced Karma Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita to guide Arjuna through his existential crisis, showing him how to perform his duty (dharma) as a warrior without attachment to results. Karma yoga is but one of the three paths to liberation alongside Bhakti yoga (path of loving devotion) and Jnana yoga (path of knowledge). A key figure associated with karma yoga was Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) who embodied selfless, non-violent action in the Indian independence movement.

jnana-yoga (jñāna-yoga)

Jnana-yoga means the path of knowledge, and is one of the three paths to liberation (moksha) alongside bhakti-yoga (path of loving devotion) and karma yoga (path of selfless action). Jnana-yoga is Hinduism's path of knowledge, using wisdom, self-inquiry ("Who am I?"), and discrimination (Viveka) to realize the self (Atman) is one with ultimate reality (Brahman), leading to liberation (Moksha). Its roots are found in the Upanishads, refined in the Bhagavad Gita, and systematized by philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 8th century CE).

bhakti-yoga

Bhakti Yoga is the path of divine love, devotion, and surrender to God, focusing on a personal, emotional connection through chanting, prayer, and service, making spirituality accessible to all, unlike rigid rituals. Emerging from Vedic roots, it flourished in South India with poet-saints such as Alvars, Nayanars, Mirabei, and Kabir, offering liberation (Moksha) through pure love for the Divine, becoming a cornerstone of modern Hinduism. Key examples of bhakti-yoga are chanting (Kirtan/Bhajan), which is group singing or individual chanting of divine names or mantras (e.g., "Hare Krishna”), and prayer & worship (Puja), which consists of offering fresh flowers, incense, or food to a deity's image (murti) on an altar, or reciting devotional prayers. Bhaktas (devotees) may practice Bhakti-yoga through different means. For example, Saguna Bhakti is the devotion to God with form and attributes (like Krishna, Rama, Shiva, Goddess), using idols, stories, and rituals, while Nirguna Bhakti is devotion to the formless, attribute-less Divine (Brahman) through contemplation and inner realization.

Vishnu

Vishnu is a principal deity in Hinduism, known as the Preserver of the universe, a member of the sacred Trimurti trinity (with Brahma the Creator and Shiva the Destroyer). His role is to maintain cosmic order (dharma) and balance good and evil, often by taking earthly forms called avatars (incarnations) to defeat demons and protect humanity, such as Krishna and Rama. He is the supreme being for Vaishnavites, the largest Hindu denomination, worshipped for his compassion and mercy. Vishnu is depicted as a serene, often blue-skinned, four-armed deity holding a conch, discus, mace, and lotus, symbolizing preservation, cosmic order, and divine power, typically in royal attire or reclining on the serpent Shesha with Lakshmi, the godess of wealth and prosperity, at his feet. Brahma is depicted as sitting atop a lotus flower that sprouts from the navel of the sleeping god Vishnu.

Shiva

Shiva is one of Hinduism's principal deities, known as "The Auspicious One," a complex god embodying paradoxes like destruction and recreation, asceticism and sensuality, serving as the Destroyer in the Trimurti (Hindu trinity) alongside Brahma (Creator) and Vishnu (Preserver). He's the Lord of Yogis, meditation, and dance (Nataraja), representing transformation, cosmic cycles, and liberation, worshipped widely as the Supreme Being in Shaivism. Shiva is depicted as a yogi with the river Ganga in his matted hair, a crescent moon, and a third eye, often with a blue throat from consuming poison, and adorned with snakes, ashes, and skulls. Sati was Shiva's first wife and the daughter of Daksha. She immolated herself in her father's sacrificial fire after being insulted, leading Shiva to destroy the ritual grounds and, in his grief, perform a destructive dance. Vishnu intervened by dismembering Sati's body, scattering the pieces across the earth to create holy sites known as the Shakti Peethas. Sati was later reborn as Parvati, Shiva's second wife. Shiva and Parvati represent the divine masculine and feminine, embodying love, power, and cosmic balance; she, the goddess of fertility, devotion, and motherhood, is the consort of Shiva, and their union symbolizes the integration of opposites, leading to the birth of sons Ganesha and Kartikeya (Skanda).

Shakti

Shakti means “power” or “energy” and is the divine feminine power, energy, or force, personified as the Mother Goddess (Devi) and considered the source of all creation, sustenance, and destruction, often seen as the dynamic counterpart to the masculine Shiva. She manifests as countless goddesses like Parvati, Kali, Durga, and Lakshmi, embodying nurturing, fierce, and transformative aspects, and is central to Shaktism, a major Hindu tradition focused on her worship through practices like Tantra and Kundalini yoga. Shiva and Shakti are very often depicted together, symbolizing the essential, inseparable union of masculine consciousness (Shiva) and feminine creative energy (Shakti) that drives the universe, with common representations including the divine couple (Shiva-Parvati) or the half-male, half-female Ardhanarishvara. Shakti Peethas are sacred Hindu shrines marking spots where parts of Goddess Sati's body fell after her self-immolation, representing divine feminine power (Shakti). These 51 sites across the Indian subcontinent are powerful centers of devotion, each linked to a specific body part of Sati/Parvati/Durga

varna & jati (varṇa & jāti)

In Hinduism, Varna refers to the varna caste system which translates to “class” or “caste,” and Jati refers to the thousands of specific, birth-based, hereditary sub-castes meaning “birth” or “community.” The Four Varnas consist of Brahmins, teachers, priests, and intellectuals, focused on spiritual knowledge and guiding society; Kshatriyas, rulers, warriors, and administrators, responsible for protection and governance; Vaishyas, farmers, merchants, and traders, involved in economic activities; and Shudras, laborers and service providers, supporting the other three classes. Jati refers to thousands of endogamous (marrying within the group) social groups or sub-castes, often linked to specific occupations, regions, and customs, forming a complex local hierarchy within the broader four-fold Varna system. These groups provide social support, maintain traditions, and historically determined a person's life path, with examples including the Sonar (goldsmiths) or Lohar (blacksmiths) jatis, all sharing common trades and lineage. Jatis often stem from inherited professions, like weaving, farming, or pottery. Members traditionally marry only within their own jati, defining their social circle. There are Jatis, such as leather workers and those who cremate the dead who are regarded by orthodox Brahmins as so “polluting” that they aren’t accepted as belonging to the four fold varna caste system, referred to as candalas, untouchables, or dalits, representing the discrimination and oppression that is associated with the Jati and Varna system.

Dalit

Dalits ("broken," "oppressed") are groups historically relegated to the lowest rung, outside the traditional four-varna system, labeled "untouchables" due to perceived ritual pollution from jobs like leatherwork and sanitation. Examples of their historical marginalization include segregation, denial of basic amenities, forced menial labor, and violence. The Manu forbids members of outcast communities from participating in the religious and social life of the community, mandating that Dalits perform undesirable tasks, such as animal slaughter and leather work. The Manu stipulates that they should dress in clothes of the deceased, wear iron ornaments, and eat from broken dishes. A key figure of the movement to dismantle the varna system in India was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who led some Dalits to convert to Buddhism to escape caste oppression.

Dr. Ambedkar

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) was an Indian jurist, social reformer, and key architect of the Indian Constitution who was born into the Mahar Caste (Dalit). Ambedkar fiercely opposed the Varna system, viewing it as the root of Dalit oppression, and advocated for its complete annihilation, not reform, through mass movements, legal battles, education, and ultimately, mass religious conversion to Buddhism in 1956, believing Dalits could only find dignity and equality outside the Hindu fold that justified caste. Ambedkar clashed with Indian nationalist Mahatma Gandhi who sought to reform the Varna system by ending untouchability while preserving its ideal of duty, viewing caste and untouchability as separate whereas Ambedkar demanded the complete annihilation of caste, seeing Varna itself as the source of oppression. The Poona Pact was an agreement signed in 1932 between Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar that established reserved seats for the Dalit community in the provincial and central legislatures, replacing the separate electorates for Dalits proposed by the British government's Communal Award.

puja (pūjā)

Puja means worship or an act of devotion. Puja is a ritualistic worship honoring a deity, treating them as an honored guest with offerings like flowers, incense, lamps, and food, often involving mantras and meditation to create a spiritual connection, ranging from simple home rituals to elaborate temple ceremonies. It is a form of Bhakti-yoga (path of loving devotion) is composed of three main components: invocation of the divine, devotional worship of that deity, and dismissal of the deity. A common practice within Hindu households includes the five part puja, also known as Pancopacara. The ritual begins with Gandha (Fragrant Paste/Perfume), which involves applying sandalwood paste, perfume, or other ointments to the idol or picture of the deity. Next, fresh flowers or garlands are offered to the image/deity, often while chanting the deity's names. Incense sticks are lit and waved before the image. The smoke purifies the surrounding atmosphere and removes negative energy. After, an oil lamp or a burning camphor flame (Aarti) is waved in front of the deity. This signifies enlightenment, knowledge, and the removal of darkness, corresponding to the sense of sight and the fire element. Lastly, something edible (naivedya), such as cooked rice, fruits, or sweets, is offered as a symbol of gratitude. This relates to the sense of taste and the water element. Once offered, the food becomes blessed, known as prasada. 

darshan (darśana)

Darshan (or Darśana) means "sight" or "vision," referring to the sacred act of seeing and being seen by a deity, holy person, or sacred object, allowing divine grace (blessings) to flow, acting as a reciprocal spiritual experience. Examples include seeing a deity idol (murti) in a temple, receiving blessings from a Guru, visiting pilgrimage sites or holy places like Kashi and the Ganges River for darshan of the holy land or river, and participating in chariot festivals (Rathayatras) to see the deity's mobile image, or seeing lamps (aarti) waved during evening rituals. Ramlila is a specific example of darshan (divine viewing) because the audience sees the actors playing deities, particularly Rama, Sita, and Lakshman, as living embodiments of God, not just actors. The performance, based on the sacred Ramayana, involves rituals like chanting, special lighting, and music, turning the open-air play into a pilgrimage where the community experiences the divine presence, worships the child-actors as gods (svarups), and participates in the story, making it a profound religious experience of seeing the divine in action. 

nirguṇa & saguṇa bhakti

In Hinduism, Saguna Bhakti and Nirguna Bhakti are two primary paths of devotion (bhakti) distinguished by how the divine is perceived and worshipped. Saguna Bhakti is devotion to a personal God with form, attributes, and qualities. Nirguna Bhakti is devotion to the formless, abstract, and attribute-less aspect of the divine (Brahman). Saguna means "with qualities" or "with attributes". This path involves worshipping a deity with a specific form, name, and characteristics. God is a personal being who can be loved, served, and related to in a tangible way through an idol (murti), image, or avatar. Devotional practices include idol worship, temple rituals, chanting hymns and songs (bhajans) that describe the deity's glories and appearance, and undertaking pilgrimages. Key figures and examples of Saguna bhakti include, Tulsidas (16th-century), a revered Hindu saint and poet, famous for writing the Ramcharitmanas, a vernacular retelling of the Ramayana, and the popular Hanuman Chalisa, embodying deep devotion to Lord Rama and Hanuman. In addition, Mirabai, A Rajput princess whose passionate devotional songs (bhajans) express her intense love and surrender to Lord Krishna, whom she considered her husband. Nirguna means “without attribute/traits” and is a path of loving devotion in Hinduism directed toward the Divine as the formless, ultimate reality (Brahman), which is without attributes, qualities, or physical manifestation. The path is often associated with jnana (knowledge) and aims for the non-dual experience of union between the individual self (ātmā) and the universal Self (Brahman). Examples of Nirguna Bhakti are through figures such as the 15th century poet-saint, Kabir, who composed powerful poetry that used the name "Ram" to refer to the formless, unblemished (Niranjan) God, explicitly cautioning against fixating on external religious labels like "Hindu" or "Muslim".

prasad (prasāda)

Prasad (or Prasāda) means “grace,” “favor,” or “gracious gift",” and is consecrated food or items offered to a deity during worship (puja), which are then blessed by the god's "taste" and distributed back to devotees as divine grace, mercy, or favor, transforming ordinary food into something holy to be eaten with reverence. It's a core devotional practice, signifying the divine accepting and returning a gift, symbolizing spiritual connection, and strengthening faith. Examples include fruits, sweets, cooked vegetarian meals, flowers, incense and even water, offered to deities like Vishnu, Shiva, or goddesses, becoming sacred Mahaprasada in temples and homes. 

Ramayana (Rāmāyaṇa)

The Ramayana is one of Hinduism's two great epics (the other being the Mahabharata) attributed to Sage Valmiki, which tells the story of Prince Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, whose righteous life is tested when his stepmother Kaikeyi, the youngest queen of Ayodhya, influenced by her maid Manthara, used two boons from King Dasharatha to demand Rama's 14-year exile and the crowning of her own son, Bharata. Rama enters forest exile with his wife Sita, and brother Lakshmana; the ten-headed demon king Ravana abducts Sita, leading Rama to ally with the monkey general Hanuman, battle Ravana in Lanka, rescue Sita, and return to Ayodhya to rule, embodying duty (dharma), love, and the triumph of good over evil. Controversial aspects of the Ramayana center around Rama’s treatment of Sita following her rescue where Rama stated she should be banished since her chastity was in question because she had been touched by Rāvaṇa and had spent a year in captivity with him. Shocked and dismayed, Sītā pledged to prove her fidelity and chastity by surviving a fire ordeal. Entering the flames, she was delivered from them, unburned, by Agni himself. The Ramayana has played a vital role in Indian politics, for example, the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya on December 6, 1992, by Hindu nationalists who believed the site was the birthplace of Lord Rama (Ram Janmabhoomi). The Ramayana, Hinduism's epic poem, centers on Lord Rama's story, and Hindu groups claimed the 16th-century mosque was built by Mughal commander Babur over a destroyed temple marking Rama's birthplace, making the site sacred for both religions and fueling demands for a grand Ram Temple.

Ramlila (rāmlīlā)

Ramlila (Rāmlīlā) is a traditional dramatic folk re-enactment of the life of the Hindu deity Lord Rama, based on the ancient epic the Ramayana and, more commonly, the 16th-century Ramcharitmanas by the poet Tulsidas. The term literally translates to "Rama's play" or "story". The central activity is watching the daily episodes (lilas) of the Ramayana story, which detail the life of Lord Rama, his exile, the abduction of Sita by the demon king Ravana, and Rama's eventual victory. The audience is an active part of the experience, often moving with the actors to different locations in the community that serve as sets (e.g., Ayodhya, Lanka). They participate spontaneously by cheering, whistling, chanting prayers, and sometimes co-reciting passages from the sacred text, the Ramacharitmanas. Ramlila is primarily staged annually during the autumn festival of Navratri, culminating in the festival of Dussehra (Vijayadashami). On the final night, giant effigies of Ravana are burned, often with fireworks, to symbolize the destruction of evil. Ramlila is a prime example of saguna bhakti. Saguna bhakti is the devotional practice that focuses on the worship of a personal God with form and attributes, in this case, the deity Rama. 

Raslila (rāslīlā)

Rāslīlā (or Rasleela) translates literally to the "play of the dance" or the "dance of divine love.” It is a devotional dance-drama in Hinduism, especially Vaishnavism, depicting Lord Krishna's divine play (līlā) with the gopis (cowherd maidens) of Vrindavan, symbolizing the soul's union with the Supreme (Krishna) through selfless love (bhakti). Rooted in texts like the Bhagavata Purana, it's a spiritual allegory for divine love, focusing on the celestial dance (rasa) where Krishna expands himself to dance with each gopi, representing spiritual realization and oneness with God, often performed during festivals like Janmashtami. Performers, dressed as Krishna (peacock feathers, yellow dhoti) and gopis (ghagra-choli), dance rhythmically to devotional songs, drums, and cymbals. Participants act out scenes from Krishna's life, focusing on the divine love between Krishna and Radha/gopis.

Ravidas

Sant Ravidas (15th-16th century) was a pivotal mystic poet-saint in India's Bhakti Movement. He was a member of the Camar (Dalit) caste as a leather worker/shoemaker, known for challenging caste, promoting spiritual equality, and emphasizing nirguna bhakti to a formless God through devotional songs (bhajans) that stressed love, compassion, and unity, with his verses included in the Sikh Adi Granth and Hinduism's Panch Vani, influencing figures like Mirabei. Benares (Varanasi) and its village Sri Govardhanpur are crucial as Guru Ravidas's birthplace and spiritual epicenter, while his influence as a 15th-century Bhakti saint revolutionized Indian spirituality by championing equality, human dignity, and devotion to a formless God, most popular amongst the Dalit caste.

Mirabai

Mirabai was a legendary 16th-century Hindu mystic Bhakti poet and devotee of Krishna, a Rajput princess who defied societal norms, married the divine, and expressed her passionate, ecstatic love for Krishna, particularly, Krishna Giridhar, the “Lifter of Mountains” through hundreds of devotional songs (bhajans) that remain central to the Bhakti Movement. As a princess, her family arranged her marriage to Prince Bhoj Raj as a political alliance when she was a teenager. Though she was a dutiful wife in her household tasks, she refused to accept Bhoj Raj as her husband, maintaining that she was already married to Krishna. The family's disapproval escalated into several attempts on her life. She was given a cup of poison, but after offering it to Krishna, she drank it and it turned into nectar (amrit). She was sent a basket with a deadly cobra, told it was a garland of flowers for her idol. When she opened it, she found a beautiful Krishna idol or a garland of flowers. Mirabai's significance in Hinduism lies in her embodiment of pure, unwavering bhakti (devotion) to Krishna. She elevated personal devotion over ritual, inspiring countless devotees to defy societal expectations for their spiritual path and establishing herself as a prominent female voice in the North Indian Sant tradition. 

Kabir

Kabir was a 15th-century Bhakti poet and saint, central to the Bhakti movement, revered across Hinduism, Sikhism, and Islam for his powerful poetry (dohas) that preached universal love, spiritual unity, and criticized ritualism and all organized and elite religion, caste, and idol worship, advocating for a direct, formless God and unity between Hindus and Muslims. Kabir came from the weaver Caste and was likely Muslim by birth. Kabir is a central figure in Nirguna Bhakti, emphasizing devotion to a formless, attribute-less God (Nirguna) beyond idols and rituals, often referring to God as Ram.

Lakshmi (Lakṣmī)

Lakshmi (Lakṣmī) "she who leads to one's goal," is the revered Mother Goddess of wealth, fortune, abundance, beauty, fertility, and prosperity, consort of Vishnu, and a central deity in Vaishnavism, representing divine feminine energy (Shakti) and the goal (Lakṣya) of life, often depicted with lotuses, elephants, and gold, worshipped during festivals like Diwali, and known by many names like Sri, Kamala, and Padma. Lakshmi is associated with glory, prosperity, royalty, and fame. She is also associated with agricultural fertility and soil. Sri Lakshmi is widely worshipped in India, appealing to agricultural workers who hope for a bountiful harvest, to soldiers who hope for good fortune in dangerous conflicts, and to merchants who seek wealth. Lakshmi is depicted as a beautiful, four-armed goddess, often seated or standing on a lotus, wearing red and gold, showering gold coins, and holding lotus buds. In addition, she symbolizes the aims of life (Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha).

Durga (Durgā)

Durga (Durgā) “she who is difficult to reach” or “she who is fierce” is the powerful warrior goddess, the protective mother of the universe, representing the dynamic energy (Shakti) of the Supreme Being, created from the combined powers of the gods to destroy evil forces and restore cosmic order, symbolized by her fierce beauty, multiple arms with weapons, and mount, a lion or tiger, celebrating victory over darkness and ignorance, especially during festivals like Navaratri and Durga Puja. People worship Durga as the powerful Divine Mother (Shakti) for protection, strength, and victory over evil, seeing her as the universe's source of power, especially after she defeated the demon Mahishasura. Kali, which means “black,” is the fierce, dark goddess of time, change, and destruction, often depicted with terrifying imagery, such as wearing a garland of human heads and a belt made of severed human arms, who is a powerful manifestation of the supreme divine feminine (Shakti), born from Durga's rage to defeat demons, particularly the blood-spawning Raktabija, by drinking his blood.

Mother India (Bhārat Mātā)

"Mother India" (Bharat Mata) is the personification of the nation as a mother goddess, a concept that emerged in the late 19th century during the Indian independence movement, linking love for the country with devotion to a divine maternal figure who nourishes, protects, and embodies Indian culture and land, often depicted as a goddess in a sari, holding the national flag, and sometimes linked to deities like Durga or Lakshmi. Examples include worshipping rivers as mothers (the Ganga river), revering Earth (Prithvi) as a life-giver, and the iconic painting by Abanindranath Tagore showing India as a goddess. 

Ayodhya

Ayodhya is an important holy city in Hinduism, revered as the birthplace of Lord Rama, a central deity and avatar of Vishnu, making it a key pilgrimage site for attaining moksha (liberation). The site of the recent Ram Mandir located in Ayodhya is incredibly significant for devotees seeking to reclaim what they believe is Rama's original birthplace from the spot where the 16th-century Babri Masjid once stood. This area, known as Ram Janmabhoomi, became the focal point of a decades-long movement to build a grand temple, culminating in the Babri mosque's demolition by Hindu nationalists on December 6, 1992, triggering widespread riots, and eventually leading to the temple's inauguration in 2024. While the demolition of Babri Masjid strengthened Hindu national politics, it also deepened Hindu-Muslim tensions.

Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) was a Hindu monk, philosopher, chief disciple of the 19th century saint Ramakrishna, and a spiritual leader who introduced Vedanta and Yoga to the West, giving Hinduism global prominence and a unified identity by emphasizing universal oneness, self-improvement, and service to humanity, making him a key figure in modern Hinduism and Indian nationalism. He is celebrated for his powerful 1893 speech at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago, where he famously addressed the "Sisters and Brothers of America," advocating religious tolerance and presenting Hinduism as a universal religion. In addition, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission, dedicated to spiritual and social upliftment through education and philanthropy (karma yoga) by running schools hospitals, and orphanages. In New York City of November 1894, Vivekananda founded the Vedanta Society.

Narendra Modi

Narendra Modi, born September 17, 1950, is India's current Prime Minister (since 2014) and a prominent figure in the Hindu nationalist movement, having risen through the ranks of the RSS (The Association of National Volunteers) and the Bharatiya Janata Party, which was founded in 1980. His importance in Hinduism stems from his championing of Hindu identity, equating it with Indian nationalism, promoting a vision of a strong Hindu nation (Hindutva), and undertaking significant projects like the Ayodhya Ram Mandir, which resonates deeply with Hindu supporters but draws criticism for potentially marginalizing religious minorities, particularly Muslims, and undermining India's secular constitution.

tilak (tilaka)

a tilak is a sacred forehead mark symbolizing divinity, spiritual identity, and protection, applied with substances like sandalwood, ash, or kumkum, representing one's sect (Shaiva, Vaishnava) or devotion, serving to focus energy at the Ajna Chakra (third eye) for purity, wisdom, and to ward off negative energy. It's used daily, during worship, festivals, and rites of passage, signifying a connection to God and remembrance of divine principles. A tilak can denote marital status for women, sectarian identity, religious affiliation, or recent ritual activity. Traditionally, women wear them most often, however, men, such as, ascetics, devotees, and temple priests wear them as well. Examples include: tripundra, three horizontal lines of sacred ash (vibhuti) across the forehead, signifying Lord Shiva and Shaivite tradition; Urdhva Pundra, a U-shaped mark, often with a central line, made from sandalwood or clay, representing Vishnu and Vaishnavite devotion; and Kumkum/Bindi, a red dot or single vertical line of vermillion (kumkum), symbolizing Devi (Shakti), commonly worn by women.