Topic 2.2: Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas that help us think efficiently and recognize patterns.

Prototypes

The best or most typical example of a concept; what comes to mind first when you think of a category.

Schemas

Mental frameworks used to organize information and guide interpretation, formed from experience and updated over time.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to fit new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods that always lead to the correct solution if followed correctly; slow but accurate.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” that allow quick decisions but can lead to errors.

Availability Heuristic

Making judgments based on information that easily comes to mind (like vivid news stories).

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on how closely something matches a prototype or stereotype.

Anchoring (Heuristic)

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.

Mental Set

Continuing to use past problem-solving strategies that may not apply to a new situation.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects as having only their usual or traditional uses.

Framing Effect

How information is presented affects decisions and judgments.

Priming

Unconscious influence of recent experiences on decision-making or perception.

Confirmation Bias

Looking for or interpreting information in a way that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The “I knew it all along” effect after learning the outcome of an event.

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating one’s accuracy, performance, or knowledge.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The mistaken belief that chance events will “even out” over time.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing a behavior or endeavor due to previously invested resources.

Executive Functions

Cognitive control processes that manage planning, working memory, flexibility, and self-control.

Working Memory

Holding and manipulating information in mind for short periods while performing cognitive tasks.

Cognitive Flexibility

Adapting to new or unexpected situations.

Inhibitory Control

Resisting distractions or impulses to stay focused on goals.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or see unique solutions to problems.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple possible solutions or ideas from a single starting point.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down ideas to find one best or correct answer.

Expertise

A deep knowledge base that fuels creative thinking.

Imaginative Thinking Skills

The ability to see things in new ways, recognize patterns, and make unique connections.

Venturesome Personality

A trait involving willingness to take risks and seek new experiences.

Intrinsic Motivation

Performing an activity for its own sake or internal satisfaction.

Creative Environment

An atmosphere that encourages innovation, freedom, and collaboration.