AP Psych Meyers Unit 2 Part 1

AP Psychology

phrenology

Franz Gall (early 1800s): theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal mental abilities and character traits. Debunked but did correctly focus attention on the idea that brain regions have particular functions

biopsychosocial system

each individual is this kind of system: their cells make organs, their organs make up an individual and its processes, and the individual is part of a family, culture, community

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

the neuron extension that passes and electrical messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

multiple sclerosis

condition caused by degeneration of the myelin sheath. Communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

resting potential

positive-outside/negative-inside state of ions around a resting axon

selectively permeable

describes the axon's surface; it only allows in certain things at certain times

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

all-or-none response

neurons either fire or they don't

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

excitatory neurotransmitter

neurotransmitter that excites a neuron into firing

inhibitory neurotransmitter

neurotransmitter that inhibits a neuron from firing

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.

Acetylcholine (ACH)

enables muscle action, learning and memory. In Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to Parkinson's.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that influences mood and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food.)

Lesion

tissue destruction. It can occur naturally or experimentally by the caused distruction/remove of brain tissues

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representaion of a slice through the body. Aslo called a CAT scan

(PET) Positron emission tomography scan

A visual display of brain activity that shows each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel, the sugar glucose (active neurons are glucose hogs)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a TECHNIQUE THAT USES MAGNETIC FIELDS AND RADIO WAVES TO PRODUCE COMPUTER generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of brain. AKA reticular formation, or reticular activating system. In charge of automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem. Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

helps coordinate movements; sits just above the medulla and is part of brainstem

Reticular Formation

part of brainstem; filters incoming sensory input and relays important information to other areas of the brain; plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Thalamus

the brains 'sensory switch board' Located at top of brainstem; receives info from all the senses except smell and routes it to the sensory areas

-also transmits higher brain's replies to cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

"little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input, coordinating voluntary movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Limbic system

A system of neural structures at the border of brainstem. Associated with emotions like fear, agression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the Hippocampus, Amygdala and hypothalamus.

Amygdala

2 Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system that influence emotions such as aggression and fear

-also processes emotional memories

-not the only structure that can evoke aggressive behavior

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus, it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (can secrete hormones to trigger the adjacent pituitary), and is linked to emotion and reward.( 5F's)

Hippocampus

Limbic system. Learning and memory matcher.

Cerebral cortex

Fabric of interconnected neuron cells. Higher order thinking. Takes meaning and puts it to focus. The body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

-expands as we move up the ladder of animal life. Greater capacity for learning means better adaptability

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Proportion of glia to neurons increases as you move t up the ladder of animal life

Frontal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. Receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual info from the opposite visual feild.

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughyl above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which revieves aditory info primarily from the opposite end.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Broca's area

controls language expression. Damage creates inability to muscles in left hemisphere connected to speech. Damage disrupts speaking

Wernickes area

Contorls language reception. Damage creates inability to comprehend language; usually in the left temporal lobe

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

Formation of new neurons

Corpus Callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split Brain

A conditioning resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

Dual Processing

a phenomenon can occur in two different ways, or as a result of two different processes, The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Phineas Gage

Railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. It's sympathetic system arouses and parasympathetic calms.

Sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (If you get scared)

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (Your PARents come home and calm you down)

Reflexes

simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues- like cortisol

Pituitary gland

"THE MASTER GLAND" the endocrine system's most influential gland

under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us, Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; no genetically closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment