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cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concept
mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
best example of a concept or category
algorithm
methodical, logical rule that allows you to solve a particular problem
heuristic
mental shortcuts, focus on one aspect of the problem while ignoring others
insight
sudden realization of the solution to the problem
confirmation bias
Tendency to seek evidence for ideas we already hold, rather than to seek evidence against them
availability heuristic
make decisions based on how easy it is to think of something
representativeness heuristic
make decisions based on how similar something is to your prototype
belief perseverance
tendency to hold beliefs despite evidence to the contrary
framing
the way an issue is presented can impact decision-making
creativity
the ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable
convergent thinking
narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution to a problem
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible solutions to a problem; creative thinking that branches out in different directions.
language
our spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways they are combined to make meaning
babbling stage
4 months old, produce wide range of possible sounds; cannot distinguish household language
one-word stage
around 1 year old, know that sounds carry meanings, use one syllable to communicate meaning
two-word stage
by 2 years old, utter two-word sentences in telegraphic speech (e.g. "get ball")
telegraphic speech
the early speech stage in which a child speaks in compressed sentences, like a telegram
critical period for language development
a period of being especially sensitive and receptive to language learning; not exposed to language until later in childhood, may lose ability to master any language
productive language
ability to produce words; matures after receptive language
receptive language
ability to understand what is being said
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Broca's area
a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech; language production affected; unable to speak words
Wernicke's area
a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression; can speak, but only in meaningless sentences; affects language comprehension (and meaningful expression)
intelligence
the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Spearman's general intelligence (g)
underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
Sternberg's triarchic theory
Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical
Gardner's multiple intelligence theory
claims nine different areas of intelligence. visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
normal curve
the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
crystallized intelligence
your accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
fluid intelligence
your ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need
physiological need
a basic bodily requirement
homeostasis
natural tendency to maintain steady internal state
incentive
meaningful environmental stimuli that attract or repel us
arousal theory
Suggests that when all biological needs are met, we search for an optimal arousal level; our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information).
Yerkes-Dodson law
Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance
hierarchy of needs
We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning
lowest to highest of Maslow's needs
physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) bodily arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
James-Lange theory
Arousal comes before awareness of emotion; Notice physiological changes first, then feel and identify it as an emotion E.g. notice increased heart rate and sweaty palms before a test, then realize you must be anxious
Cannon-Bard theory
Arousal and conscious emotion happen at the same time; the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.
Schachter and Singer's/two-factor theory
theory that to experience emotion we must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal;
appraisal theory/cognitive appraisal
Emotions result from our evaluations of events, which cause different reactions in different people
facial feedback effect
our facial expressions can subtly impact how we feel
empathy
when we share another's feelings and reflect that person's meanings back to them
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
the _________ NS coordinates fight or flight behavior, the _________________ takes over and gradually clams the body
"two track" brain
emotions follow two different pathways: "high road" passing through the cortex and the brain sends a signal to the amygdala to trigger an emotional experience (hatred, love, depression); the "low road" bypass the cortex, going straight to the amygdala before we interpret them, e.g. fear responses
stress
appraising and responding to an event that is perceived as threatening or challenging
stressor
the stressful event or situation
stress reaction
emotional and physical reactions
catastrophes
a type of stressor; unpredictable large-scale events; e.g. natural disasters, terrorist attacks
significant life changes
a type of stressor; includes positive and negative events e.g. marriage, divorce, buying a home
daily hassles
a type of stressor; everyday events that we need to think about, e.g. dropping off children at childcare, writing papers for class, dealing with financial issues
flight-or-fight response
an emergency response, including activity of the sympathetic nervous system, that mobilizes energy and activity for attacking or escaping a threat.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
3-stage process of responding to stress: 1. alarm reaction (sympathetic nervous system activation/ fight-or-flight); 2. Resistance (stay activated/body adjusts t continuing threat); 3. Exhaustion (energy/resources depleted, body starts to give up)
coping
reducing stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral strategies
problem-focused coping
reduce stress by changing the stressor
emotion-focused cooping
reduce stress by ignoring/avoiding stressor and tending to emotional needs; Can be adaptive (e.g. get support from friends) or maladaptive (e.g. go out partying every night)
personal control
the personal sense of being able to control one's environment
learned helplessness
hopelessness and passive resignation when one cannot escape aversive effects (Seligman & Maier)
external locus of control
perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine fate
internal locus of control
Perception that each person controls their own fate
optimism
anticipation of positive outcomes
pessimism
anticipation of negative outcomes
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps reduce depression and anxiety.
mindfulness meditaiton
a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.
resilience
personal strength that helps most people cope with the stress and recover from adversity and trauma
coping with stress
personal control, optimism and pessimism, social support, finding meaning
mananging the effects of stress
ways of gathering strength and mitigating stress whrn you can't avoid it: aerobic exercise, relaxation and meditation, faith communities and health
contributors to happiness (according to research)
have high self-esteem; be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable; have close, positive, and long lasting relationships; have work and leisure that engage their skills; have an active religious faith; sleep well and exercise
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