PY151 Exam 2: Ch.8 - Ch. 10

cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

best example of a concept or category

algorithm

methodical, logical rule that allows you to solve a particular problem

heuristic

mental shortcuts, focus on one aspect of the problem while ignoring others

insight

sudden realization of the solution to the problem

confirmation bias

Tendency to seek evidence for ideas we already hold, rather than to seek evidence against them

availability heuristic

make decisions based on how easy it is to think of something

representativeness heuristic

make decisions based on how similar something is to your prototype

belief perseverance

tendency to hold beliefs despite evidence to the contrary

framing

the way an issue is presented can impact decision-making

creativity

the ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable

convergent thinking

narrowing the available solutions to determine the single best solution to a problem

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible solutions to a problem; creative thinking that branches out in different directions.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways they are combined to make meaning

babbling stage

4 months old, produce wide range of possible sounds; cannot distinguish household language

one-word stage

around 1 year old, know that sounds carry meanings, use one syllable to communicate meaning

two-word stage

by 2 years old, utter two-word sentences in telegraphic speech (e.g. "get ball")

telegraphic speech

the early speech stage in which a child speaks in compressed sentences, like a telegram

critical period for language development

a period of being especially sensitive and receptive to language learning; not exposed to language until later in childhood, may lose ability to master any language

productive language

ability to produce words; matures after receptive language

receptive language

ability to understand what is being said

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Broca's area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech; language production affected; unable to speak words

Wernicke's area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression; can speak, but only in meaningless sentences; affects language comprehension (and meaningful expression)

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Spearman's general intelligence (g)

underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

Sternberg's triarchic theory

Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory

claims nine different areas of intelligence. visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

crystallized intelligence

your accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

fluid intelligence

your ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood.

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

homeostasis

natural tendency to maintain steady internal state

incentive

meaningful environmental stimuli that attract or repel us

arousal theory

Suggests that when all biological needs are met, we search for an optimal arousal level; our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information).

Yerkes-Dodson law

Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance

hierarchy of needs

We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needs more than the needs for esteem and meaning

lowest to highest of Maslow's needs

physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) bodily arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange theory

Arousal comes before awareness of emotion; Notice physiological changes first, then feel and identify it as an emotion
E.g. notice increased heart rate and sweaty palms before a test, then realize you must be anxious

Cannon-Bard theory

Arousal and conscious emotion happen at the same time; the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

Schachter and Singer's/two-factor theory

theory that to experience emotion we must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal;

appraisal theory/cognitive appraisal

Emotions result from our evaluations of events, which cause different reactions in different people

facial feedback effect

our facial expressions can subtly impact how we feel

empathy

when we share another's feelings and reflect that person's meanings back to them

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

the _________ NS coordinates fight or flight behavior, the _________________ takes over and gradually clams the body

"two track" brain

emotions follow two different pathways: "high road" passing through the cortex and the brain sends a signal to the amygdala to trigger an emotional experience (hatred, love, depression); the "low road" bypass the cortex, going straight to the amygdala before we interpret them, e.g. fear responses

stress

appraising and responding to an event that is perceived as threatening or challenging

stressor

the stressful event or situation

stress reaction

emotional and physical reactions

catastrophes

a type of stressor; unpredictable large-scale events; e.g. natural disasters, terrorist attacks

significant life changes

a type of stressor; includes positive and negative events e.g. marriage, divorce, buying a home

daily hassles

a type of stressor; everyday events that we need to think about, e.g. dropping off children at childcare, writing papers for class, dealing with financial issues

flight-or-fight response

an emergency response, including activity of the sympathetic nervous system, that mobilizes energy and activity for attacking or escaping a threat.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

3-stage process of responding to stress: 1. alarm reaction (sympathetic nervous system activation/ fight-or-flight); 2. Resistance (stay activated/body adjusts t continuing threat); 3. Exhaustion (energy/resources depleted, body starts to give up)

coping

reducing stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral strategies

problem-focused coping

reduce stress by changing the stressor

emotion-focused cooping

reduce stress by ignoring/avoiding stressor and tending to emotional needs; Can be adaptive (e.g. get support from friends) or maladaptive (e.g. go out partying every night)

personal control

the personal sense of being able to control one's environment

learned helplessness

hopelessness and passive resignation when one cannot escape aversive effects (Seligman & Maier)

external locus of control

perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine fate

internal locus of control

Perception that each person controls their own fate

optimism

anticipation of positive outcomes

pessimism

anticipation of negative outcomes

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps reduce depression and anxiety.

mindfulness meditaiton

a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner.

resilience

personal strength that helps most people cope with the stress and recover from adversity and trauma

coping with stress

personal control, optimism and pessimism, social support, finding meaning

mananging the effects of stress

ways of gathering strength and mitigating stress whrn you can't avoid it: aerobic exercise, relaxation and meditation, faith communities and health

contributors to happiness (according to research)

have high self-esteem; be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable; have close, positive, and long lasting relationships; have work and leisure that engage their skills; have an active religious faith; sleep well and exercise