Ancient History

Social Structure

Persian society was strictly hierarchical, led by the divinely sanctioned king, followed by nobles, satraps, artisans, farmers, and slaves.Persepolis reliefs show subject peoples in ethnic dress bringing tribute, highlighting the empire’s diversity and the king’s control. Persepolis Tablets reveal women receiving rations and working in textiles, showing their economic role.

Economy

The Persian economy thrived through agriculture, mining, and tribute. The Apadana reliefs depict provinces offering gold, silver, livestock, and grain, showing wealth transfer to the king. The Persepolis Tablets record wages, rations, and inventories, proving a centrally managed and organised economy.

Political Structure

Darius divided the empire into 20 satrapies, each ruled by a satrap. The “King’s Eyes and Ears” were royal spies who monitored the satraps, ensureing loyalty. Herodotus (3.89) praised Darius for “setting things in order,” as he fixed tribute for each province making taxation fair. Treasury Tablets show central control through recorded payments.

Religion

in the Behistun Inscription it is illustrated that Darius claimed divine rule from Ahura Mazda, the supreme god in the religion Persians believed in called Zoroastrianism. Although Zoroastrianism was the main religion, the Persians allowed other religious practices, as demonstrated by the Cyrus Cylinder, revealing how inclusive the Persian Empire is.

Burial Practices

Tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam were cut high in cliffs to avoid polluting the earth, reflecting Zoroastrian beliefs. Art and inscriptions reinforced the king’s divine status.

Cultural and everyday life

Cultural diversity was celebrated and used as a political tool. Persepolis Tablets show women and children receiving rations and working in textiles. Use of Elamite, Aramaic, and Old Persian shows inclusiveness and administrative complexity.

Art and architechture

Art and architecture, especially at Persepolis, were used as propaganda to reinforce the king’s image as a unifier and divine ruler. Apadana reliefs show subject peoples offering tribute peacefully — symbolising imperial unity. Royal tombs depict kings with Ahura Mazda to legitimise their rule.

Battle of Marathon

The Battle of Marathon in 490 BC saw Athenian general Miltiades lead a smaller force to victory against the Persian army under Datis. Using a flanking tactic, the Athenians routed the Persians and boosted Greek morale. Herodotus (6.112) highlights this as a key moment in resisting Persia’s first invasion.

Battle of Thermopylae

At the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC, King Leonidas and 300 Spartans, with allies, held the narrow pass against Xerxes’ massive army. Though ultimately defeated due to betrayal, their sacrifice delayed Persia’s advance and inspired Greek unity. Herodotus (7.220) praises their courage.

The Battle of Artemisium

The Battle of Artemisium, fought in 480 BC alongside Thermopylae, was a naval engagement where Themistocles led the Greek fleet against Persia. While tactically indecisive, the Greeks preserved their fleet and forced the Persians to split their forces. Herodotus (8.11) records minimal Greek losses.

The Battle of Salamis

The Battle of Salamis in 480 BC was a naval victory masterminded by Themistocles, who lured the Persian fleet into narrow straits. The Persians suffered heavy losses, forcing Xerxes to retreat, marking a turning point in the war. Herodotus (8.75) details this defeat.

The Battle of Plataea

The Battle of Plataea in 479 BC was a decisive land victory for Greek forces led by Pausanias over the Persians under Mardonius, ending the Persian invasion. Herodotus (9.64) describes this as a major Greek triumph securing their freedom.

The Battle of Mycale

The Battle of Mycale in 479 BC was a combined land and naval victory led by Spartan Leotychides and Athenian Xanthippus. It freed Ionian cities from Persian control and ended Persian naval dominance. Herodotus (9.100) emphasises its importance.

The Delian League

Formed in 478 BC, the Delian League was a defensive alliance led by Athens to resist Persia. Member states contributed ships or money, with the treasury initially kept on Delos. Aristides helped assess fair contributions, and Cimon led successful campaigns in Asia Minor, strengthening Greek control (Thucydides 1.96).

The transformation of the Delian League

By 454 BC, Athens moved the League treasury to its own city, marking a shift from alliance to empire. Funds were redirected to Athenian projects like the Parthenon. Revolts by League members such as Naxos (469 BC) and Thasos (465 BC) were violently suppressed. Athens ruled more by fear than mutual consent (Thucydides 1.99–100).