Childhood

how is childhood socially constructed, how has it evolved, has it improved, what is the future of childhood?

Wagg on childhood

there is no one universal experience of childhood and as such it is socially constructed

how does sociology differ from science with regards to childhood

childhood is not a biologically inevitable life stage - society creates it (this is a very structural idea)

what can we compare to show that childhood is a social ocnstruct

the modern Western experience of childhood with the experience of childhood in the past and in different societies

Punch’s study on childhood

studied childhood in Bolivia:

* children are expected to take on work responsibilities in the home and community from the age of 5

how does childhood in Bolivia differ from the modern Western experience of childhood

* at the age of five, children in the West are dependents
* young adults often get jobs but this is not legally expected until 18 or finished with education
* this can be criticised in that this experience does not extend to all modern Western groups, such as young carers

Malinowski’s study on childhood

lived with the Trobriand Islanders for some time and observed that they were tolerant of children’s sexuality and took an ‘amused interest’ in children exploring their sexuality and becoming sexually aware

what method was Malinowski’s study on childhood

a participant observation/ ethnography

how does childhood in the Trobriand Islanders differ from modern Western childhood

* childhood is characterised with innocence
* there is implementation of the age of consent, before which there is a belief that children should not engage with becoming sexually aware
* there is also a culture that a child couldn’t possibly be aware of their sexual orientation

why is it a problem to talk about one single experience of childhood in the UK

* postmodern, multi-cultural society
* some children are young carers
* some children have experiences/ trauma which causes them to mature faster out of necessity

why might retirement also be considered a social construct

the age of retirement regularly changes according to changing life expectancy; it also hasn’t always existed as a legal right

has childhood always existed as a concept

no

Aries on childhood

* it is a relatively recent concept, emerging during the modern era
* it was not recognised before some time between the 17th and 20th century

according to Aries, how were children seen before 1600

as mini adults, expected to take part in adult roles; children were not a group protected by laws and they were punished for crimes the same as adults

what was the methodology for Aries study on childhood

secondary qualitative data

* argued that Medieval paintings of children showed them wearing adult clothes and expressions (criticism: how do we define adult expressions?)

Shorter on childhood

childhood emerged during the 17th century because fewer children were dying in infancy so parents began to have closer relationships with them and the ideology of the family began to emerge

what are the criticisms of Aries’ study on childhood

* Pollack - criticises Aries’ use of highly limited and selective sources for his research, particularly as these paintings would have only been commissioned by the upper classes, who would have wanted to illicit respect (explaining their dressing of their children in a certain way)
* Wilson - Aries claims that the part was unaware of children’s needs whereas they may just have been different needs

when was industrialisation

1750-1900

what was industrialisation

the shift from an economy based on agriculture to one based on machinery

how does industrialisation contradict Aries

childhood didn’t emerge for all groups at the same time - industrialisation led to a continuation of child labour for working class children

why might working class children have been expected to continue to work during industrialisation

* poverty
* the lack of education for the working class

how may the function of the family during industrialisation have led to a continuation of children working

the ideology of the family was that it was a unit of production, and within this children were an economic asset

how did the changing function of the family after industrialisation lead to a decrease in children working

the ideology of the family changed and it became seen as a unit of consumption, and within this children became an economic burden

how did a lack of government involvement lead to a continuation of children working in industrialisation

the Welfare state had not yet been developed and so children were expected to help care for sick and/or elderly relatives

how does the Welfare state support children in modern Western Britain

* free school meals
* universal education
* universal healthcare (some things that have to be paid for as an adult are free to children eg. opticians)
* benefits for poorer households

what idea about children does the Welfare state promote

they are dependents (they are defined as a vulnerable group)

how could it be argued that the Welfare state is failing to help children (as well as the elderly and sick, other dependent groups)

* the waiting times for the NHS/ underfunding of the NHS
* the cost of living crisis - some families are having to choose between heating their homes or putting food on the table

what is generally accepted about childhood in the West

it is a special time of life and children are fundamentally different from adults

how are children perceived in the West today

* physically and psychologically immature
* not yet competent to run their own lives
* in need of protection
* in need of socialisation to learn to become a responsible adult
* having rights and some (though not all) responsibilities

how does the Western perception of childhood relate to functionalism

the idea that children need to be socialised to become responsible adults relates to the functionalist view of the function of education

for what laws is the Western notion of childhood used to justify

* the age of consent is 16
* the age of voting is 18 (because they are seen as psychologically immature, and dependents, so would potentially be regurgitating their parents’ views)

why is it argued that the voting age should be lowered

the government makes policies that affect everyone, including children - an example of this is Brexit

Pilcher on childhood

the modern Western view of childhood sees children as separate from adults and sees childhood as a distinct life stage

how has introduction of new laws led to an emergence of childhood in the UK

* there are laws restricting what children can and can’t do - eg. alcohol consumption
* there are laws around the age of consent for sex and marriage
* education is compulsory until the age of 18
* the law describes children as ‘vulnerable people’

how have products and services led to an emergence of childhood in the UK

some products are marketed specifically towards children, further separating them from adults

what lifestyle do children typically have in the UK

one dominated by leisure activities, making childhood the ‘golden age’ that Pilcher describes it as

how are children protected from the adult world in the UK

through safeguarding laws, and keeping them in the protective bubble of family life

according to the New Right, whose responsibility is it to keep children separate from the adult world

the family’s - they would be concerned that the state are taking on the role of the ‘responsible parent’, as they are anti-state intervention

which theory would argue that the modern Western notion of childhood is becoming globalised

postmodernism

what is an example of the modern Western notion of childhood becoming globalised

campaigns against child labour, which reflect Western ideals as to what childhood should be like

what is a criticism for the globalisation of the modern Western notion of childhood

* it is ignoring the cultures and traditions of other societies
* eg. it may be normal for children to work as important preparation for adult life
* the Western notion of childhood is not always better
* there are still children in the West living in severe poverty, and children from different social groups are treated differently

what is a report that shows the modern Western notion of childhood is not always better

the UK Good Child Report

what were the results of the UK Good Child Report

from looking at data from 2018 and 2021, it can be seen that there is a continuing downward trajectory of children’s happiness

what was achieved by the Factory Acts in the 1800s

they prevented children from working

what effect did the Factory Acts have on the family

the family was no longer a complete unit of production as children couldn’t work, and as children became economic burdens as a result of this, the family became a unit of consumption

when was the Every Child Matters policy introduced

2004

when was the law introduced that made education compulsory until the age of 18

2007

how have laws and policies increased age patriarchy

by making education compulsory and children economically dependent, more power has been given to adults

how has the emergence of childhood negatively affected children, specifically young adults

the emergence of childhood has led to age patriarchy, and a perpetuation of the idea that children are incapable of making decisions about their own life, and thus young adults under the age of 18 do not have the right to vote on policy that will affect them

what word can be used to describe society today in relation to children

childcentric

when was The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC)

1989

name some of the rights that children have today

the right to education and welfare, as well as protection from harm, and parents have a responsibility to protect them

how has the birth rate affected the emergence of childhood

parents today are having fewer children, which leads to them being able to invest more time, money, and emotion into the children they do have

what was the birth rate in 2018

11\.1 live births per 1000 of the population

what was the birth rate in 1947

20\.5 live births per 1000 of the population

there has been growing interest in child development and the best way to raise them - how has this contributed to the emergence of childhood

children are identified as a unique and separate group with unique challenges that the state cares for

Donzelot on childhood

theories of childhood development emphasise the need to supervise and protect children - this supervision is another way for the state to check parenting

what would the New Right use Donzelot’s argument as evidence of

the Nanny State

how has austerity affected the experience of childhood

the experience of childhood has worsened for working class families, as poverty and homelessness increases

* these have increased further during the cost of living crisis

this means services that provide for children and ensure their welfare, such as mental health services for children, have been cut back on

which theories are more likely to take a March of Progress view in relation to childhood

functionalism and liberal feminism

which theorists believe childhood has improved

Aries, Shorter, Pilcher

what is the Working Together to Safeguard Children Act (2018)

an act that requires all agencies from schools to police etc work together to safeguard children, as Safeguarding Partners

what are some results of the Working Together to Safeguard Children Act (2018)

the creation of

* the Safeguarding Review Panel
* the Child Death Overview

what are some of the recent laws that have increased protection of children

* Children and Social Work Act (2017)
* Working Together to Safeguard Children (2018)
* Internet Safety Strategy (2018)

what did the Children and Social Work Act set out

corporate parenting principles for local councils with regards to children in their care

which theorists are more likely to take a conflict view of childhood

marxists and feminists

Brannen on children

there are inequalities between children based on ethnicity - Asian parents are much stricter towards their daughters than parents from other ethnic groups

Howard on children

there are inequalities between children based on class - children from lower income families are more likely to die in infancy, perform poorly in education, and be placed on a child protection register

Hillman on children

there are inequalities between children based on gender - boys are less protected and heavily supervised than girls

Gittins on children

there are inequalities between children and adults - categorising children as a separate group from adults results in age patriarchy, wherein adults have control over children

in what ways are children controlled and oppressed by adults

* neglect and abuse
* control over children’s space
* control over children’s time
* control over access to resources
* technological exploitation

how many children were on child protection registers in 2019

52,500

according to the NHS in 2018, how many children are obese between the ages of 2 and 15

almost a third

why is there control over children’s access to resources

children cannot earn money for themselves

how much have referrals of child abuse images online surged by in the last 5 years

700%

how many people in the UK present some kind of sexual threat to children online

80,000

how many school children have sent a nude or semi-nude image to an adult

1 in 50

how does Donzelot argue that childhood has improved

more surveillance of children by the state means that parents are aware their behaviour towards their children is being monitored, so are less likely to be abusive

give an example of how the state surveys parents’ treatment of children

safeguarding at schools

how is smacking an example of Donzelot’s point

parents are less likely to smack their children as smacking has visible signs that child protection agencies are looking out for

Palmer on childhood

today’s society is seeing a rise in the toxic childhood

what is a toxic childhood

a childhood where socialisation is being replaced by technology and junk food consumption, and children’s emotional, physical, and intellectual development is being damaged

which theory is most likely to agree with Palmer’s points

postmodernism

Postman on childhood

childhood is disappearing as social blurring is occurring

what is social blurring

the process by which the lines between adulthood and childhood become blurred

Jenks on postmodern childhood

the postmodern era is characterised by uncertainty and risk, and things like divorce for families; amongst this, children serve as a permanent and stable source of identity, and so parents may become obsessed with protecting them

Mason and Tipper on childhood

children have more power than other sociologists might believe because they can:

* have more say in family life
* have a say in who they see as important in family relationships, as biological ties are less important

Morrow on childhood

children have a greater say in family discussions and decision making