Drugs

Define psychoactive drug

Define psychoactive drug

A substance that alters brain function, resulting in changes in mood, perception, consciousness, or behavior. Examples include stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opioids.

Define substance use disorder

A medical condition characterized by a compulsive pattern of substance use despite significant adverse consequences. Individuals with this disorder often consume more of the substance than intended and may experience both physical and psychological dependence on the substance.

The key characteristics of tolerance and withdrawal.

1. Tolerance: refers to the body's adaptation to a drug, leading to a diminished response over time. As tolerance develops, an individual requires increasingly larger doses of the substance to achieve effects that were once felt at lower doses. This escalating need can lead to dangerous levels of use, potentially resulting in overdose and other health risks.

2. Withdrawal: a range of negative symptoms that occur when a person discontinues or reduces the use of a substance they are dependent on. These symptoms are often opposite to the effects of the drug. For instance, withdrawal from sedatives can cause agitation and anxiety. While withdrawal can be uncomfortable and, in some cases, life-threatening (particularly with substances like alcohol and barbiturates), it serves as a key indicator of physical dependence.

Describe the importance of dopamine in drug use and addiction.

1. Dopamine plays a key role in the brain's reward system and is significant in drug use and addiction:

   1. Reward Mechanism: Drugs increase dopamine levels, creating pleasure and reinforcing drug-seeking behavior.

   2. Reinforcement: Dopamine release leads to positive associations with drug use, fostering a cycle of repeated use.

   3. Addiction Development: Repeated use alters brain chemistry, reducing natural dopamine production and increasing the need for higher doses.

   4. Withdrawal Symptoms: Stopping drugs lowers dopamine, causing withdrawal symptoms like depression and cravings, making it hard to quit.

   5. Impact on Decision-Making: Chronic use impairs decision-making, prioritizing immediate rewards and leading to compulsive behaviors.

Discuss cannabis including some of the short- and long-term effects and medicinal uses.

1. Cannabis Overview

   1. Cannabis, often referred to as marijuana, is classified as a hallucinogen. It can produce a range of psychoactive effects due to its interaction with the brain's neurotransmitter systems, particularly the endocannabinoid system. 

2. Short-Term Effects

   1. Altered Perception: Users may experience changes in sensory perception, such as heightened visual or auditory sensitivity.

   2. Euphoria: Many individuals report feelings of relaxation and mild euphoria.

   3. Increased Heart Rate: Cannabis can lead to elevated heart rate and blood pressure.

   4. Anxiety or Paranoia: Some users may experience increased anxiety or paranoid thoughts, particularly at high doses.

   5. Impaired Memory and Coordination: Short-term use can impair short-term memory and motor skills, affecting tasks like driving.

3. Long-Term Effects

   1. Cognitive Impairment: Chronic use, especially when started in adolescence, may result in lasting cognitive deficits, including memory and learning difficulties.

   2. Respiratory Issues: Smoking cannabis can lead to respiratory problems similar to those caused by tobacco smoking, such as chronic bronchitis.

   3. Dependency: Some users may develop a psychological dependence on cannabis, experiencing cravings and withdrawal symptoms when not using it.

4. Medicinal Uses

   1. Pain Relief: Cannabis is often used to alleviate chronic pain, particularly in conditions like arthritis and neuropathy.

   2. Nausea and Vomiting: It is effective in reducing nausea and vomiting, particularly in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy.

   3. Appetite Stimulation: Cannabis can stimulate appetite in patients suffering from conditions like HIV/AIDS or cancer.

   4. Anxiety and Stress Relief: Some patients use cannabis to manage symptoms of anxiety and stress, although responses can vary significantly among individuals.

Describe common opioids and the opioid crisis. What role did the pharmaceutical industry play?

1. Common Opioids: Opioids are a class of drugs that include both natural and synthetic substances used primarily for their analgesic (pain-relieving) properties. 

   1. Heroin: An illicit drug that produces intense euphoria and is typically injected, snorted, or smoked.

   2. Morphine: A potent pain reliever often used in medical settings.

   3. Methadone: A synthetic opioid used to treat pain and to manage withdrawal symptoms in people recovering from heroin or other opioid addiction.

   4. Codeine: A less potent opioid often prescribed for mild pain and found in some cough syrups.

   5. Prescription Pain Relievers: This category includes hydrocodone and oxycodone, which are frequently prescribed for pain management but have a significant potential for misuse.

2. The Opioid Crisis: is the widespread misuse of both prescription and non-prescription opioids, leading to a dramatic increase in addiction, overdoses, and deaths. This crisis has affected many communities across the United States and beyond, with rising rates of opioid-related fatalities. 

3. Role of the Pharmaceutical Industry

   1. Aggressive Marketing: Pharmaceutical companies aggressively marketed opioids as safe and effective treatments for chronic pain, often downplaying the risks of addiction and dependency.

   2. Misleading Information: Many companies provided misleading information about the addictive potential of opioids, which contributed to their widespread prescription by healthcare providers.

   3. Encouraging Overprescription: The industry incentivized healthcare professionals to prescribe opioids more liberally, leading to increased availability and misuse.

   4. Failure to Monitor: There was insufficient oversight and monitoring of opioid prescriptions, which allowed for widespread access and misuse among patients.

Discuss the effects of alcohol. How does drinking affect the brain dopamine, GABA, and glutamate levels and what effect does this have on the brain? How does alcohol impact certain brain regions like the cerebral cortex (frontal lobe), the cerebellum, the medulla, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland? 

1. Effect on neurotransmitters:

   1. Dopamine: Increases dopamine release, leading to euphoria and reinforcing drinking behavior, which can contribute to addiction.

   2. GABA: Enhances GABA's inhibitory effects, resulting in sedation, reduced anxiety, and impaired motor function.

   3. Glutamate: Inhibits glutamate, decreasing brain activity and impairing cognitive functions like memory and learning.

2. Effects on Brain Regions

   1. Cerebral Cortex (Frontal Lobe): Impairs judgment and decision-making, leading to risky behaviors.

   2. Cerebellum: Affects coordination and balance, resulting in motor impairment.

   3. Medulla: Depresses vital functions like breathing and heart rate, which can be dangerous at high levels.

   4. Hypothalamus: Alters hunger and thirst sensations and affects temperature regulation.

   5. Pituitary Gland: Disrupts hormone release, impacting stress responses and reproductive functions.

1. Stimulants generally enhance dopamine neurotransmission, which is linked to the brain's reward pathways. This increase in dopamine activity is associated with feelings of euphoria, heightened alertness, and improved cognitive performance. However, repeated use can lead to tolerance, requiring higher doses for the same effects, and may ultimately result in negative health consequences and dependency.

2. Examples

   1. Caffeine primarily acts as an adenosine antagonist, promoting wakefulness and alertness by blocking the neurotransmitter adenosine, which induces sleep. While generally considered safe, excessive consumption can lead to anxiety, insomnia, and other health issues.

   2. Cocaine acts as a potent stimulant by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. This leads to increased levels of dopamine, which is associated with feelings of euphoria and heightened alertness. However, high doses can also cause agitation, paranoia, and hallucinations.

Identify the most used psychoactive drug in the world? Where does it come from and what are some of the good and bad effects associated with it?

1. The most used psychoactive drug in the world is caffeine.

2. It comes from nuts, seeds and leaves of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America.

3. Good Effects:

   1. Alert & focus

   2. Physical performance: Endurance & strength

   3. Mild antidepressant for mild depression and suicidality

   4. Pain relief

   5. Possess antioxidant properties, meaning to help protect the body

4. Bad Effects:

   1. Disturbs sleep

   2. Anxiety and jitters

   3. Increased heart rate and blood pressure

   4. Digestive issues: Acid reflux, IBS, etc.,

   5. Possible pregnancy concerns: Miscarriage & low birth rate

   6. Bone health

Identify the most addicted psychoactive drug in the world? Discuss some impacts of this drug physiologically and neurochemically and some of the risks associated with its use. 

1. The most addictive psychoactive drug is nicotine.

2. Physiological Impacts

   1. Addiction and increased health risks.

3. Neurochemical Impacts

   1. Interaction with Neurotransmitters: Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with acetylcholine receptors in the brain, which play a role in arousal and reward mechanisms.

   2. Dopamine Release: Nicotine stimulates the release of dopamine, which is associated with feelings of pleasure and reward, reinforcing the addictive behavior.

4. Risks Associated with Use

   1. Health Consequences like cancers and Dependency psychological and physical.

Discuss where cocaine comes from and how it relates to dopamine levels in the brain. How does isolation relate to potency and what are some effects associated with its use?

1. Cocaine comes from the coca plant, native to South America. 

2. Relation to Dopamine Levels

   1. Cocaine acts as a stimulant by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. This increases the levels of dopamine, which is associated with reward and craving, leading to its potent effects.

3. Isolation and Potency

   1. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways, with its potency varying based on the method of administration. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable form that can produce intense effects more quickly than other methods, increasing its potential for abuse.

4. Effects Associated with Use

   1. Increased Alertness, Mild Euphoria, High Doses leading to experience agitation, paranoia, and even hallucinations.

Discuss some examples of hallucinogen drugs and their general effects on the brain. How do psychedelics relate to brain derived neurotropic factor, levels of glutamate, and reduced activation of the default mode network? What are some risks of hallucinogen use?

1. Examples of Hallucinogen Drugs

   1. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, Mescaline, DMT, Ketamine, PCP

2. General Effects on the Brain

   1. Hallucinogens are known to produce profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences. Users can experience vivid visual hallucinations and altered perceptions of time and body sensations. The effects of these drugs can vary based on set (mindset) and setting (who / who your with)

3. Psychedelics and Neurobiology

   1. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF): These substances can increase levels of BDNF, which is important for neuroplasticity and the growth of new neurons.

   2. Glutamate Levels: Psychedelics may also increase levels of glutamate, a neurotransmitter involved in excitatory signaling in the brain.

   3. Reduced Activation of the Default Mode Network (DMN): Reduced thoughts about yourself and ego.

4. Risks of Hallucinogen Use

   1. Unpredictable Reactions: The variability in individual responses can lead to distressing experiences or "bad trips."

   2. Psychological Impact: Users may experience anxiety, paranoia, or lasting changes in mood and perception.

   3. Impaired judgment and risky behavior

   4. Potential for Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD): Some users may experience persistent visual distortions or flashbacks long after the drug's effects have worn off.

Discuss some of the outcomes associated with trials of psilocybin and how this relates to cluster headaches. 

Psilocybin can be found in mushrooms, like the blue from that video. Some outcomes of it are enhanced neuroplasticity (new connections), therapeutic applications (alleviation of depression, anxiety and PTSD, creating more meaning in life) and especially alleviation of cluster headaches. Cluster headaches is one of the most painful things, causing people to commit suicide to escape but with psilocybin it has show to reduce to frequency and intensity.