Praxis General Science 5436

in order list the charges of protons, neutrons, and electrons

positive, no charge , negative

where are protons and neutrons found

in the nucleus of an atom

where are electrons found?

in the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus

neutrons have a very ______ mass

small

The Bohr Model states..

the ground state is the most stable level

An element’s atomic number comes from

the number of protons

when the number of neutrons change is creates a ______ of the same element

isotope

in a neutral atom what are equal

electrons and protons

What theory tells us how atoms behave in a chemical reaction

Daltons Atomic Theory

atoms combine to form

compounds

what does chemical reactions do to atoms

rearranges them, they are not created or destroyed

Electron Configuration Rule 1 of 3- Pauli Exclusion Principle states..

No 2 electrons can have the same 4 quantum numbers. “ Pauli is picky and he checks id’s at the door, if 2 are the same = denied

Electron Configuration Rule 2 of 3- Aufbau Principal

“ Add from the bottom” Electrons always start at the bottom first and work upwards

Electron Configuration Rule 3 of 3 Hunds Rule

kids on the bus find their seat first before pairing.

_________is a roadmap of which orbitals hold electrons

electron configuration

How many electrons per orbital

2

What level orbital has only 1 which means 2 electrons

S level ( think sphere)

What level has 3 orbitals which means 6 electrons

P level- think peanut

What level has 5 orbitals which means 10 electrons

D level ( think daisy )

What level has 7 orbitals which means 14 electrons

F level— think firework

What is like the “atomic fingerprint” of an atom?

spectra

what are the light patterns atoms give off or absorb and used to identify an atom called

spectra

energy levels

where electrons sit fixed distances from the nucleus

The ________ from the nucleus the more energy an atom has

further

energy as light ( atomic spectra)

when an atom falls to ground state what does it release?

Alpha

what type of radioactive decay releases 2 protons and 2 neutrons.. aka “ the big chunk” like throwing a bowling ball

Beta

type of radioactive decay that happens when the proton/ neutron ratio is unstable and the neutron breaks down

K Capture

type of radio active decay that happens when the nucleus pulls in an electron

Gamma

type of radioactive decay.. does not change anything at all except energy. This is pure energy

Fisson or Fusion… like breaking a piece of chalk into 2

Fission

Fission or Fusion.. like joining 2 pieces of chalk together to make a bigger one

Fusion

What generates power in Nuclear Plants.. fusion or fission

fission

fission or fusion.. releases radioactive waste

fission

fission or fusion. Potential energy source for the future

fusion

fusion or fission.. found in the stars.. challenging to achieve on earth

fusion

carbon dating

used to estimate the age of fossils and artifacts

inner core

plate tectonics: made of solid iron and nickle

outer core

plate tectonics: made mostly of liquid/molton

outer core

where is the earth’s magnetic field located

mantle

drives the movement ( convection )

seafloor spreading

new ocean crust forms at mid ocean ridges and pushes older crust outward

divergent bounderies

plate tectonics: “ pulling apart ”

convergent boundaries

plate tectonics: “ crashing together ”

subduction zones

old crust being recycled to the mantle

transform boundaries

when boundaries slide past each other and cause slip strike faults

hardness test

What it checks: How easily a mineral can be scratched.
Quick definition: Resistance to scratching (Mohs scale 1–10).

Example: Talc = soft, Quartz = hard.

streak test

What it checks: The color of the mineral’s powder when rubbed on a plate.
Quick definition: True color of a mineral in powdered form.

Example: Hematite streak = red/brown even if the mineral looks metallic.

luster test

What it checks: How the mineral reflects light.
Quick definition: Surface shine — metallic or non‑metallic.

Examples: Glassy, pearly, dull, earthy.

clevage test

What it checks: Whether the mineral breaks along flat, smooth planes.
Quick definition: Breaks in clean, flat sheets.

Example: Mica peels into thin sheets.

fracture test

What it checks: How a mineral breaks when it doesn’t have cleavage.
Quick definition: Irregular or jagged break.

Example: Quartz breaks with a conchoidal (shell‑like) fracture.

Color test

What it checks: The visible color of the mineral.
Quick definition: Least reliable property — many minerals come in multiple colors.

Example: Quartz can be clear, pink, purple, yellow.

density test

What it checks: How heavy the mineral feels for its size.
Quick definition: Mass relative to volume — “heft.”

Example: Galena feels very heavy.

crystal shape test

What it checks: Natural geometric shape of the mineral.
Quick definition: External shape reflecting internal atomic structure.

Example: Halite forms cubes.

Acid test ( rocks)

What it checks: Reaction with weak acid (usually HCl).
Quick definition: Fizzing indicates carbonate minerals.

Example: Calcite bubbles with acid.

magnetism test ( rocks)

What it checks: Whether the mineral is magnetic.
Quick definition: Attracted to a magnet.

Example: Magnetite.

igneous

born from a volcano. molton liquid lock cools

weathering and erosion

what causes sediments to break off during the rock cycle

Lithification

process that turns loose sediment into solid sedimentary rock through compaction and cementation.

deposition

the process where sediments are laid down or settle out of water, wind, or ice.

metamorphic

rocks form when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or chemical fluids without melting.

Weathering
Rocks break down into smaller pieces.

Erosion
Sediments are moved by wind, water, or ice.

Deposition
Sediments are dropped off and settle in layers.

Compaction
Layers get squeezed together.

Cementation
Minerals glue the sediments together.

Lithification
Compaction + cementation turn sediments into sedimentary rock.

Heat and Pressure
Any rock can change into metamorphic rock without melting.

Melting
Rock melts into magma.

Cooling and Crystallization
Magma cools and hardens into igneous rock.

Cycle repeats forever
Any rock can become any other rock depending on the process.

explain the rock cycle

original horizontality

sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal layers

what are sedimentary rocks deposited in horizontal layers in the grand canyon

gravity, wind and water spreads them evenly like sand on a beach ( original horizontality)

superpostion

in an undisturbed rock sequence, the oldest rocks are at the bottom, and every other layer is younger than the rocks beneath it

the _________the rocks the deeper they are

older

cross-cutting relationships

intrusions in rocks are younger than the rocks it cuts across

inclusions

frangments of rocks aka “inclusions” in a rock layer that contains them

absolute age dating (aka numerical or radiometric dating)

type of rock dating that gives you a more specific time or age range

what does radiometric dating measure

ratio of radioactive “ parent” isotopes to stable “ daughter” isotopes trapped inside a rock

why can scientists use radiometric dating to find the age of rocks

because radioactive elements decay at a constant, predictable rate ( aka half life) this information shows them how much time has passed since the rock formed or solidified

half-life

the time it takes for exactly half of a sample to break down

massive global changes like mass extinction events

what do geologists mark as the boundaries between the 4 geological eras

Name the 4 geological eras in order

Pre-Cambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic

One big thing: Name the geological eras in order and their symbol

Pre-Cambrian= single cell organisms , Paleozoic= marine life, Mesozoic=dinos, Cenozoic= NOW!

what era is 90% of the earths history

pre-cambrian

Paleozoic Era

• Life moves from water to land

• First vertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, and land plants

• Oceans dominated by trilobites, brachiopods, and early fish

• Pangaea begins forming

• Ends with the Great Dying (≈90% of marine species wiped out)

Pre-Cambrian Era

explains the origin of life, the oxygenation of Earth, and the transition from simple to complex organisms

Mesozoic Era

• Known as the Age of Reptiles

• Dinosaurs dominate land ecosystems

• First birds and mammals appear

• Angiosperms (flowering plants) evolve

• Pangaea breaks apart → modern continents begin forming

• Ends with the dinosaur extinction event

• Dinosaur evolution

• Continental drift

• Major extinction events

• The rise of birds and mammals

• Plant evolution (gymnosperms → angiosperms)

Cenozoic Era

• Known as the Age of Mammals

• Mammals become dominant after dinosaurs disappear

• Birds, insects, and flowering plants flourish

• Continents reach modern positions

• Ice ages shape Earth’s surface

• Humans evolve and spread globally

• Human evolution

• Climate change and ice ages

• Modern ecosystems

• Mammal diversification

• Geologic time sequencing

KPG extinction event took out what and why did they die

dinos, food chain collapse

The Great Dying.. 90–96% of marine species and 70% of land species. Cleared the way for the rise of the Mesozoic era and the rise of dinos!

Largest mass extinction in Earth’s history

evaporation

liquid water turns into invisible gas from heat and rises out of the water into the atmosphere

condensation

water vapor cools down high in the atmosphere turning back into tiny liquid water droplets or ice crystals to form clouds

precipitation

water falling from clouds to earth when the drops are too heavy in the clouds

infiltration

water on the ground soaks into the soil moving down to replenish ground water and aquifers

“ the storage tank underground”

aquifers

aquifers

an underground layer of rock, sand, or gravel that stores and transmits groundwater. it acts like a sponge

“ the fill line underground”

water table - marks the level where the “storage tank” is completely full and soaked

A good aquifer needs these 2 things

Porosity — how much water the rock/sediment can hold Permeability — how easily water can move through it

The “2 Ps” determine where an aquifer can form and the _______ tells you how full it is

water table

Ocean gyres

large circular systems of surface currents in the ocean, created by global winds, the Coriolis Effect, and the shape of continents.

Name the 2 types of ocean currents

surface and deep ocean

surface ocean currents are driven by

Global winds, Coriolis effect, Continents

deep ocean currents are driven by

• Differences in temperature, Differences in salinity (aka thermohaline circulation)

Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis Effect is the apparent curving of moving objects (air, water) caused by Earth’s rotation.

It makes currents and winds turn, not move in straight lines.

• Northern Hemisphere → deflects…..

• Southern Hemisphere → deflects….

• Northern Hemisphere → deflects RIGHT

• Southern Hemisphere → deflects LEFT

Thermohaline circulation

Thermohaline circulation is the deep‑ocean current system driven by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) differences.

Cold + salty water = dense → sinks
Warm + less salty water = less dense → rises

This creates the global conveyor belt.

This creates the global conveyor belt

Thermohaline circulation

Tides

caused by gravitational pull of moon and sun combined with earths rotation.

The _______ gravity creates 2 daily tides

moons