5 - the impact of Napoleons rule on France

Napoleon's consolidation of power

-hiring from different political factions
-centralizing decision-making
-employing secret police
-1801 Concordat: appeasing Catholics and insuring state supremacy
-reforming French law through the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code)--which protected property owners, and set things back for women
-gaining popular support through plebiscites

1800 Napoleon consolidation

Moved to Tuilieres quickly
Had coins with his effegy on made
Selected members of council of state
Established prefects - strengthened central control
Claimed he responded to the countries needs by supplying strong + effective gov

Plebiscite of 1800

Napoleon's first plebiscite it stated that Napoleon should become first consul and 99.9% of voters approved.
Only 25% turnout - Lucien changed this to 46%

Suppression of the Jacobins

Not tolerated
Spies used to infiltrate potential Jacobin groups + leaders made examples of
1801 129 Jacobin leaders arrested + deported

Suppression of the liberals

Napoleon accepted by moderates
Wanted constitution guaranteeing free speech + press
Madame de Stael and Benjamin Constant + friends formed a liberal resistance group
1803 he banished them from Paris

Suppression of the Royalists

Dealt firmly with royalist revolt + associated protests of conscription
Continued use of military tribunals to deal with leaders
Britany 6,000 Chouan prisoners taken 750 shot in 1800
Royalist disturbances in capital 1800-04
2 royalist assassination attempts of Napoleon
Duc d'Enghien said to be in touch with emigres - shot - little royalist trouble after

Consul for life

Offered to Napoleon by senate 1802
Constitution of year X - issued in name of stability, confidence, deterring enemies
Plebiscite showed stronger support - 55% turnout 90% yes ( not known if this was true)

Winning over potential opponents

e.g. offered generous amnesty to rebels in West
Won over royalist leaders through promising to protect Catholic church
Made overtures to emigres + refectory priests - rewarded supporters

Attempts to win support

Policies, speeches, propaganda to win bourgeoise support
Changes to vote gave them more political influence
Pronouncements not attempt to restore emigre + church land encouraged them

Amalgame

Ending divisions of Ancien regime by reconciling old nobility + new ruling elites

ralliement

rallying all around the regime

Success in war encouraging support

1800 success against Austrians = opportunity for propaganda of N's heroism
1802 peace of Amiens with British = respite from war + popular with bourgeoise wanting trade

Cause of establishment of emperor status - 1804

• resumption of war 1503 revived fears he may die
• threat from royalists e.g. duc d'einghn

Establishment of emperor status 1804

took title of emperor of the French with hereditary succession
Constitution of year XII
Crowned himself in Notre Dame 2 December 1804 + named Josephine emperor

Plebiscite for constitution Year XII

turnout 47%, 99.9% yes

Constitutional developments Jan 1801

N began blocking the tribunate + legislative body
Filled senate with supporters + big salaries + gifts of land

Jan - March 1802 constitutional developments

Faced with criticism he purged the senate, tribunate + legislative body
Changed voting qualifications giving more power to notables

Constitutional developments continued

1810 abolished the tribunate
1813 last meeting of legislative body
1815 attempted radical change to constitution to keep power

Napoleon's system of honours and rewards

Wanted a meritocracy (but limit on how much people could rise outside military)
Liked hierarchy = something to aspire to
Gave rewards at little cost - binding people to regime

Legion of honour

102 award created by Napoleon to recognize merit or bravery
majority awarded to military personnel

Imperial nobility

napoleon creates this 1808 in order to reward his generals and officials
Counts - state officials, ministers, archbishops
Knights - for service
59% of titles went to military
a 7th of the size of 1789 nobility

How had education been reformed before Napoleon

Early revolutionaries sought to extend it but apart from removing it from hands of church had achieved little

1802 reform of education

law establishing lycées and école populaire

Napoleon's Lycées

secondary schools for boys
Entrance by open scholarship exam
N saw them as future military + civillian personnel
Ran with military discipline + modern curriculum
Appealed to property owned classes and military elite most places going to notables

école populaire

state primary schools in each commune ran by local municipality

March 1808 imperial university established

supervisory not teaching institution
ensured edu conformed to N standards
Teacher training, set up schools, standerdised curriculum, school inspections

Teaching during napoleon

Teachers had to give oath of loyalty
By 1813 1/3 of teachers ex/priests due to shortages

Impact of Napoleon education reform

Ensured patriotism +loyalty
Fulfilled aspirations of notables
Provided future empire

Napoleons attitude to women

Traditionalist attune
Believed for marriage + acquiring and transmitting property + conceiving and raising children
Primary schooling seen as sufficient
Did little to fulfil revolutionary ideas of liberty + equality

How Napoleon did increase women's rights

• 1804 civil code women granted partial control over immovable property
• married women unable to acceptance inheritance without husband approval
• inequality in divorce although more aviailable
  Made some gains but well short of equality

Napoleon's censorship

He sought to influence thinking through strict control of publications

Napoleon's censorship of newspapers

Jan 1800 number in Paris reduced to 13 by 1801 only 4 allowed to publish
All subject to police supervision
1809 censors appointed to all papers

Napoleon censorship of publishing houses

1808 ones in Paris reduced 200 to 60 had to have license from police
1810 censorship board to approve or reject books

Napoleon propaganda

He used all types of media to project the image he wanted (man who brought order from caos saving France)

• commissioned architects, artists, sculptures, writers to honour his achievements
• Programme of rebuilding + public works to create positive image + glorify regime e.g. Arc du caroussel + triumph

Why N reconciled with the church

• helped amalagame + ralliement
• New means of control through cooperative priests whos teachings encouraged acceptance + obedience + preserving social order

N reconcilliaion with the church

Dec 1799 decreed churches could be opened any day of week
July 1800 authorised Sunday as day of rest
1800 accession of new pope = excuse for reconcilliation

Peace of Amiens

March 1802
Break from war - reduced lingering Jacobin support
Due to strong position of army N got favourabe terms

Concordat of 1801

• Pope recognised as head of Catholic church
• catholism recognised as faith of majority
• catholic worship freely available
• Pope recognised new regime + not try reclaim church lands
• Bishops + clergy appointed gov + take oath of loyalty

The concordat was published with the Organic articles

Issues by N without reference to Pope

• gov approval before any Papal legate entered France or papal doc published
• Priest teachers had to be gov approved + regulated
• Protestant ministers paid same as catholic
• Guarenteed religious tolerance of protestants and jews in France

Impact of concordat

seen as triumph for N

• won over royalists
• reassured nobles new land (biens natinoaux) was safe
• retained authority over clergy = network who could spread state propaganda
  Degree of harmony restored
  Refactory priests came out of hiding, churhces reopened, revolutionary calander abandoned

Aftermath of the concordat

Napoleons relationship with the Pope quickly deteriorated
1808 French troops occupied Rome
1809 N imprisoned him annexed the papal states to his new Kingdom of Italy

What were the Napoleonic codes

A culmination of the work of revolutionaries by simplifying + clarifying French laws

• they standardises law creating written accessible records
• Defined laws after revolutionary upheaval

Issue of Napoleonic codes

March 1804

How did the Napoleonic codes confirm key revolutionary changes

• abolition of feudalism + removal of church + noble privilege
• Secularisation of state
• Equality before the law

Key parts of Napoleonic codes

• confirmed legal rights of purchasers of biens nationaux
• forbade workers associations
• supported employers over employees

Impact of Napoleonic codes on equality

Re-established male rights

• Father/husband = head of family
• Children subordinate to father until marriage
• Divorce allowed but unequal

1806 code on civil procedure

standardise court procedures

1807 commercial code

guidelines for trade + business, debt and bankruptcy

1810 penal code

punishment guidelines

Impact on Napoleonic codes

• most comprehensive codification France had ever had
• imposed order + uniformity
• Strongly contrasted chaotic pre-revolutionary times
• Mix of egalitarianism and authoritarianism

Administration of justice under Napoleon

• revolutionary judiciary kept but judges appointed rather than elected
• judges in civil + criminal courts appointed for life
• From 1802 N made direct judicial appointments

1801 new special courts for suspension of brigandage

• no juries
• power to impose death penalty

Administration before Napoleon

• Locally elected councils
• ineffective administration under revolutionaries (no communication with central gov + little money)
  Napoleon need to revise it to ensure order

Napoleon created prefects in his reform of administration

Feb 1800

• responsible for carrying out central authority in departments
• appointed by 1st consul
• responsible for conscription, tax collection, agriculture, industry commerce, public works, bridges, roads, education, welfare
• report on subversive behaviour
• spread gov propaganda
• ensured gov orders carried out
• chosen for talent - mainly bourgeoisie

Napoleons local government

5 main branches

• civil administration headed by prefects
• courts
• gendarmerie
• civilian/administrative police
• tax bureau
  Created internal stability

Napoleonic policing and control

He prioritised developing efficient police for order and stability
He inherited the 2 rev forces of gendarmerie and administrative police

Napoleons gendarmerie

Elite, efficient, professional force of veterans

• Everyday law enforcement
• Generally effective despite gangs of of wandering labourers + urban unemployed causing bursts of trouble

Napoleons administrative police

General surveillance

• info on troublemakers, rounded them up - had to call gendarmerie to arrest
• ministers of police made daily reports to N

Policing by 1810

• By now N not only wanted opposition crushed but potential opponents found
  Constant surveillance
• dangerous literature destroyed
• Correspondence interrupted
• recipients of suspicious letters interrogated
• potential trouble makers exiled e.g. Madame de Stael

Napoleonic taxation

High taxes for war

• Directory's contribution fonciére - land tax = bulk of gov revenue
• personal property tax in urban areas = little revenue cost>revenue
• Direct taxes e.g. customs duties + registration fees

Napoleonic changes to taxation

Sought to increase revenue and efficiency

• 1807 land register drawn up to measure value of land - only 1/5 of country assessed by 1815
• tax collectors appointed for each department paid according to tax collected
• Sep 1807 Cour des comptes - central bureau handles audits of state finances

Impact of napoleonic changes to taxation

any improvements off set by cost of maintaining army of empire

• gov heavily relied on indirect taxes of goods (alcohol, salt, tobacco tax quadrupled) = hit poor hard

Attempts to fix remaining currency problems from the directory

One of N's first acts was to refuse to honour agreements in paper money (which was worthless) - made metal coins the only legal tender
Jan 1800 established the bank of France

1800 establishment of the bank of France

• provided credit for gov enterprise
• purpose to produce + national currency of coinage
  Its monetary control + responsible behaviour boosted the economy

Impact of the bank of France

• by controlling gov bonds N could get loans at reasonable rates
  1808 sub branches set up in towns where trade growing + cash fluidity needed

Economic growth at start of Napoloen

• revolution + terror had hit economy hard
• Economy was lagging behind the British

How did Napoleons minister of the interior (Chaptal) help economic growth

• established bureau of statistics to collect national data
• 1801 société d'encoragement pour l'industrie Nationale - celebrated French industry
• councils of agriculture + arts + agriculture in each department 1801
• 1802 established chambers of commerce in cities

Impact of Chaptals economic reforms

• increased mechanisation + industrialisation particularly in mass production of consumer goods
  But N more interested in luxury goods
  Less effective after Chaptal gone

Industrial advancement under Napoleon

• 400% increased yield from wool industry
• 2x increase value in export off silks 1790-1812

Agricultural change under Napoleon

• remained largest sector of economy
• despite some large landowners, much of France in hands of small peasants who could barely support own needs
• division of farms between sons due to civil code = problems worsened
• tenant farmers reluctant to make improvements due to heavy taxes

Gov encouragement of agriculture

encouragement of replacement crops (coffee, cotton, dyes, sugar) to avoid dependence on colonial production due to war

• prefects set aside land
• Jan 1813 import of sugar banned to stimulate economy - effects not felt until after 1815

Agricultural success?

• Good harvests in early years except for 1806 = increased feeling of prosperity
• conditions worsened after 1809
• Improvements in wine production otherwise little evidence of widespread improvement overall

Impact of war on economy

• stimulated production of military supplies at expense of peacetime industry
• labour lost to army
• reduced internal demand

Paying for war

• high taxes
• conscripted soldiers on low wages
• loans, sold land, took stuff from conquered territories
• despite initial success empire never provided sufficient income to cover costs of war/expenditure

Introduction of blockade

Tried to force peace with Britain by closing its European markets + increase French trade by filling the gap

• 1793 British goods prohibited from entering French territories
• 1806-7 continental system (blockade) introduced

The Continental system 1806

• Banned French trade with Britain - allies must comply or be treated as enemies

Impact of continental system

Failed

• Napoleon lacked control of coastlines
• smuggling thrived
• British counter action deprived French producers of raw materials
• Supply of sugar + coffee low
  1810 N forced to allow some licensed trade with Britain
  Britain's trade with Americas made up for loss

Factors limiting economic change

• limited demand - most population tied to farming, heavily taxed
• industrial work unattractive - trade unions banned, living conditions in towns poor
• limited incentive for expansion in non war industries
• loss of markets in war
• communication poor
• farms small + unprofitable - state controls on food + supplies = little incentive to change

Economic downturn

1806 was the first year since 1802 when expenditure > income = taxes increased

• worsened after bad harvest 1809 - followed by banking crisis across Europe
• worsened 1810 by N's attempt to tighten customs collection

Economic condition by 1810

• severe debt, inflation, rising unemployment, collapse of banks + businesses
• some recover 1811 but bad harvest worsened prices