Fitness Evaluation, Selection, and Administration

purposes of assessment

are to gather baseline data and to provide a basis for developing goals and effective exercise programs.

program design and motivation

Developing goals with a client is critical for both

mode of exercise

For highly trained clients, choosing an an exercise ergometer that most closely matches their , , (treadmill, cycle, swim flume) leads to a more accurate assessment of their performance

treadmill test

For average or deconditioned clients, the type of test is not as important when assessing aerobic function; however, a , , will usually produce the highest maximal O2 scores

easily repeated

A timed mile can be , , on occasion during a walking program; if clients can cover the distance more quickly or easily with a lower exercise heart rate or rating of perceived exertion (RPE), they know immediately that they are making progress.

non–weight-bearing cycle test

However, for clients who are overweight or who have lower body joint issues that make weight-bearing activities painful, the advantages of a , , may override any concerns about slightly lower estimates of maximal oxygen consumption.

safe, effective, and appropriately

Assessment of health- or skill-related fitness components, or both, provides the personal trainer and client with baseline information that will be used to develop , , challenging goals.

cardiovascular disease

With the exception of assessing factors that could contribute to , , there is no standardized battery of tests one can give each client before designing an appropriate program

health and skill

The first step in individualizing the personal trainer’s approach to each client is determining the specific tests to give to measure various parameters of , , related fitness.

Assessment

is the act of measuring a specific component using a well-constructed, valid, and reliable test and then evaluating and interpreting the results

meaningful

If the evaluation is carried out in accordance with the client’s goals, the results will be more , , to the client.

formative or summative evaluations

There are two ways of looking at assessments

Formative evaluations

include formal assessment with a specified test protocol, as well as the subjective observations the personal trainer makes during each interaction with the client.

periodically

The formative assessments take place before a program begins and , , throughout the training period.

modifications

formative assessments offer the personal trainer opportunities to formulate or plan a program, give the client feedback, and make , , to the program while it is still in progress.

designing, implementing, and modifying

it is important to keep in mind that every observation of a client provides important data that the personal trainer must consider in , , that client’s program.

Subjective observations

are variable between evaluators and might include noticing posture, gait, exercise technique, response to cardiovascular exercise, comments or body language relating to specific exercises or suggestions, and daily energy levels in each exercise session.

objective evidence

Data from specific test protocols provide , , that the personal trainer can compare against relevant standards to interpret the client’s performance.

Summative evaluations

are made when a client completes a specified training period, class, or season. They represent the sum total of what has been accomplished in a given period. This evaluation is a summary of what was achieved during the specified training period.

final evaluation

The same assessments used at the beginning and midpoint of an exercise program can and generally should be used to provide the , , but how the results are used will differ.

tests, measurements, and evaluation

Before selecting tests to use with a specific client, the personal trainer must have an understanding of the terminology specific to , , and to some extent, the process by which tests are developed.

appropriate

The personal trainer must sort through the information and select tests , , to each client while recognizing that some clients will be more interested in personal progress than in multiple formal assessments.

reduce error and increase the accuracy

The objective of the personal trainer in selecting assessments for the client is to , , of the assessment.

Questions to answer in attempting to improve the accuracy of a test

How reliable and objective was the assessment? Was it valid? Was the equipment calibrated, and did it produce accurate results? Was the subject physically or emotionally influenced by anything before or during the test that may have affected the results? Was the test protocol followed carefully and were data collected accurately?

Reliability

is a measure of repeatability or consistency of a test or an observation

same trait under the same conditions

To determine if a measurement is reliable, one must measure the , , with no intervention before a subsequent measurement is performed.

one trial to another

If the results of the test are the same from , , the test is reliable.

test–retest method

This is when a test is repeated with the same individual or group within one to three days, and sometimes up to one week later if the test is particularly strenuous

intrarater reliability

In order for a test to be reliable, the person conducting the test must be consistent when administering it.

objective rather than subjective

If more than one personal trainer can consistently get the same result from a client, the test is

strict and standardized conditions

However, the fact that an assessment has good reliability is meaningless if the personal trainer does not take the time to practice giving the assessment under very

Validity

indicates that a test measures what it is supposed to measure

relevance

indicates how well the test matches the objectives of testing.

Face validity

means the test appears to test what it is supposed to test. In this sense, a 1RM test is a valid measure of muscular strength but not muscular flexibility.

content validity

which indicates an expert has determined that a test covers all topics or abilities it should. For example, a volleyball athlete should be tested on more than just jumping ability in order to cover all skills performed in that particular sport

Construct validity

is a theoretical concept meaning a test is able to differentiate between performance abilities. In other words, if a test is to measure sport skills, those with the relevant skills should score better on the test than those who take the test without having previously acquired the skills

Criterion-related validity

allows personal trainers to use tests in the field or in the fitness center instead of tests that can be performed only in a laboratory setting or with expensive equipment, because the laboratory test results and field test results have been statistically compared with each other

maximal-exertion stress test

should be given only in a controlled environment, and depending on the client, with medical personnel and equipment on hand

treadmill test, a step test, or a cycle ergometer test

in a fitness center setting, personal trainers can select a submaximal cardiovascular endurance test, such as a , , that has been statistically correlated to the maximal exertion tests on the basis of certain assumptions.

given heart rate and the more total work

On maximal exertion tests the assumptions are that the more fit the individual is, the more work he or she should be able to do at a , , he or she should be able to perform before reaching maximal heart rate

Direct measures

Assess outcomes or skills directly through observable evidence (e.g., a personal trainer measures a client's 1-rep max to evaluate strength).

Indirect measures

Assess outcomes through perceptions, reflections, or secondary indicators (e.g., a personal trainer uses a client satisfaction survey to gauge perceived program effectiveness).

standard error of measurement

which is the difference between a person’s observed score—what the result was—and that person’s true score, a theoretically errorless score.

Measurement error

can arise from several sources, including the client, the personal trainer, the equipment, or the environment

health status and functional capacity, age, sex, and pretraining status

To select appropriate tests, the personal trainer must consider several factors that may influence client performance and subsequently have an impact on the validity and reliability of the assessment results. These key client factors include

health status and functional capacity

of a client dictate which assessments are appropriate. Information gathered during the preparticipation screening process should be used to identify potential physical limitations. Understanding those limits provides a context for selecting assessments that will reasonably match the capabilities of the individual.

3.5 ml ∙ kg−1 ∙ min−1

1 MET (metabolic equivalent) is equal to an oxygen consumption of , , and is an estimate of a person’s oxygen consumption at rest),

client fatigue (and motivation)

whether a function of recent activities, food and fluid intake, or sleeping patterns, or due to the number and physical demands of the assessments being administered in one session, will influence the assessment outcomes

Chronological age and maturity

may influence testing performance. For example, the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run is considered a standard field test to measure aerobic capacity for apparently healthy college-age men and women. However, this same assessment will not appropriately measure aerobic ability of preadolescents, primarily because of the immature physical development of the cardiovascular system and the experiential maturity needed to cover the distance by pacing

Sex-specific biological factors

may influence performance in a variety of activities or assessments such as the chin-up, push-up, and bench press to assess muscular endurance of the upper extremities.

Women

tend to have more body fat and less muscle, plus a smaller shoulder structure that supports less muscle tissue, and as a result less of a mechanical advantage for muscles working at the shoulder

pretraining status

of the client may affect test selection when the skills required for the test and the relative level of exertion are considered. Caution should be emphasized in assessment of untrained, deconditioned individuals, even when they express a desire to achieve high performance levels. For example, the 1.5-mile (2.4 km) run test and the 12-minute run test are considered near-maximal-exertion tests, as they require the individual to cover distance as quickly as possible

unacceptably high risk for injury

for someone with no pretraining experience, the lack of motor skill and the intensity required for the exercise may create an

greater the load

the more stress the joints, muscles, bones, and connective tissues experience

initial strength gains

For the untrained person, adaptations in the coordination of the neuromuscular system may account for most of the , , in a resistance training program

abilities

To maintain objectivity and reduce intrarater error, testing protocols that require adept technical skills need to match the , , of the personal trainer.

compounded

Errors can be further , , by failure to follow a protocol, inaccurate identification of measurement sites, improperly calibrated equipment, and the choice of prediction equations

sites and body types

To develop intrarater consistency, the personal trainer should perform the measurements on different

calibration

Any mechanism or device used to measure work, performance, or physiological response requires , , or the adjusting of the device to ensure precision, in order to accurately measure the specific trait being assessed.

Reliability, validity, and objectivity

of the assessment are directly affected by the accuracy of the measurement tool.

inhibit the body’s thermoregulatory

High ambient temperatures in combination with high humidity , , system from dissipating heat, which impedes physical endurance performance, poses health risks, and affects test results.

Cold exposure

may stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which can affect total peripheral resistance, arterial pressure, myocardial contraction, and cardiac work

air quality index (AQI)

This is a measure of air quality as it relates to pollutants.

advanced preparation and organization

Administration of a fitness assessment requires , , to ensure psychometrically sound results and safe outcomes.

Appropriate and valuable test outcomes

are predicated on the ability of the personal trainer to prepare clients by educating them as to the content of the test, pretest requirements, and expectations of the assessment process.

Preparation to evaluate someone’s level of fitness

requires the personal trainer to execute preassessment screening procedures, review safety considerations, select appropriate assessments, select facilities and verify accuracy of equipment, and perform record-keeping responsibilities.

laboratory tests and field tests

Two types of assessments , , may be administered to yield valuable results; but in most situations they are administered under different conditions.

Laboratory tests

in most cases, are performed in clinical facilities using specialized diagnostic equipment to assess an individual’s maximal functional capacity.

Field tests

are practical assessments that are inexpensive, are easy to administer, require less equipment, are less time consuming, can be performed at various venues, and may be more efficient for evaluating large groups. These assessments, which are not diagnostic, use indirect measurements to quantify and extrapolate performance results.

norm- or criterion-referenced standards

In any case, one can use field tests effectively and efficiently to obtain the information needed to assess performance and compare against

appointment for the assessment

should be scheduled in advance in order for the client to adequately prepare mentally and physically for the event.

pretest instructions

adequate rest (e.g., 6 to 8 hours the night before and no vigorous exercise 24 hours preceding the test); moderate food intake (e.g., a light meal or snack 2 to 4 hours before the test); adequate hydration abstinence from chemicals that accelerate heart rate (with the exception of prescribed medications); proper attire (e.g., loose-fitting clothing; sturdy athletic shoes); specific testing procedures and expectations before, during, and after the test; and conditions for terminating a test.

optimal performance and adequate rest and recovery

When organizing a testing protocol, the personal trainer must determine the proper order of testing to ensure

energy system demand, time available, and specific goal

Test order is influenced by many factors including the number of clients to be tested, components to be evaluated , , of the client.

General Fitness

Resting tests (e.g., resting heart rate, blood pressure, height, weight, body composition) Nonfatiguing tests (e.g., flexibility, balance) Muscular strength tests (e.g., 10RM bench press) Local muscular endurance tests (e.g., YMCA bench press test, partial curl-up test) Submaximal aerobic capacity tests (e.g., step test, Rockport walking test, Åstrand-Rhyming cycle ergometer test, 1.5-mile [2.4 km] run, 12-minute run/walk)

Athletic Performance

Resting tests (e.g., resting heart rate, blood pressure, height, weight, body composition) Nonfatiguing tests (e.g., flexibility, vertical jump) Agility tests (e.g., T-test) Maximum power and strength tests (e.g., 3RM power clean, 1RM bench press) Sprint tests (e.g., 40-yard [36.6 m] sprint) Local muscular endurance tests (e.g., 2-minute sit-up test, 1-minute push-up test) Anaerobic capacity tests (e.g., 300-yard [274.3 m] shuttle run, Wingate anaerobic test) Maximal or submaximal aerobic capacity tests (e.g., maximum treadmill test, 1.5-mile [2.4 km] run, YMCA cycle ergometer test)

3 to 5

test that maximally taxes the phosphagen energy system (e.g., maximal sprint tests) should have , , minutes of rest to allow the client to recover.

60

Maximal tests of anaerobic glycolytic capacity (e.g., repeat-sprint tests, Wingate, even maximal aerobic tests) require at least , , minutes rest for complete recovery.

Test instructions

should define the protocols, including the purpose of the test, directions on implementation, performance guidelines regarding technique and disqualification, test scoring, and recommendations for maximizing performance.

mentally and physically

Administration of the assessments should follow a standardized procedure including , , preparing the client, verifying the accuracy of the equipment, applying the specific test protocol, ensuring safety throughout the process, and performing record-keeping responsibilities.

norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standards

The two reference perspectives for comparison of data are

Norm-referenced standards

are used to compare the performance of an individual against the performance of others in a like category.

criterion-referenced standards

are set against a combination of normative data and the best judgment of the experts in a given field to identify a specific level of achievement. Another way of stating this is to say that a criterion is a specific, minimal standard—one that theoretically each person can strive for because it is not compared with how other individuals perform.

reasonable estimate

criterion-referenced data can provide a , , of the level of fitness that can then be associated with health.

immediately or shortly

The personal trainer should schedule a review of results , , after the assessment process.

eight or more weeks

The date scheduled for a posttest may be , , from program initiation.

degree of attainment

It is important to keep in mind that formative evaluations are a measure of progress toward a goal, and the summative evaluation is a measure of the , , of a stated goal.