ALL OF PYSHCOLOGY 24

Explain what an independent, dependent and controlled variable is.

Independent variable (IV) - Changable, deliberately manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent variable (DV) - Depends on the iv, measured in an experiment. Usually a measure of performance, a number, or score.

Controlled variable - Held constant and doesn’t change. Is used to show the changes that happen to the other variables.

IV DV EXAMPLES - Receiving a reward for studying will increase the amount of time students study

IV = Receiving reward for study

DV = Amount of time spent studying

What are the four elements In writing a hypothesis?

The population that the hypothesis will apply to

IV

DV

A specific prediction

Ethical guidelines in psychology? List and explain

Informed Consent: The researcher must fully explain to the participant about the true nature and the risks of the experiment and then obtain written permission on the consent form in order to take part + if incapable need paretn consent

Voluntary participation: Each participant has the right to choose to willingly take part in the research and must not be ticked into doing it.

Deception: Deception should not be used in research unless it is necessary. It must be only used when knowing the true nature of the studywould change the results

Debriefing: Debriefing occurs when the experiment has concluded, during debriefing,a researcher must inform the participant about the results and the true nature of the experiment and correcrt misconceptions.

Withdrawal: Each participant may keave the research at anytime without negative concequences or pressure to continue and may remove the results from the data at any time.

Confidentiality: Researchers must collect, retain and dispose of all the information related to the participants in a manner that does nt disclose their identity within the research.

Explain how those guidelines in shuld be applied to a psycholgical experiment

In a psychological experiment, researchers must explain everything clearly, get participants' agreement, make sure they join willingly, inform them of risks and benefits, keep their information private, and provide contact details. If there's compensation, they should explain that too.

In a given experiment identify if those guidelines have been followed.

Informed Consent: Explain the experiment and its risks clearly to participants and get their written permission. If the participant is incapable, get consent from a parent.

Voluntary Participation: Participants must choose to join willingly and not be tricked into it.

Deception: Only use deception if necessary and if knowing the true nature of the study would change the results.

Debriefing: After the experiment, explain the results and the true nature of the study to participants, correcting any misconceptions.

Withdrawal: Participants can leave the study at any time without consequences and can remove their data.

Confidentiality: Keep participants' information private and handle it so their identity is not revealed.

Explain the difference between psychologist and psychiatrist

A psychologist provides talk therapy and cannot prescribe medications, while a psychiatrist is a medical doctor who can prescribe medications and offer therapy.

Explain the major divisions of the nervous system; central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS), somatic nervous system, autonomonic nervous system

CNS: Includes the brain and spinal cord, controlling most functions of the body and mind.

PNS: Connects the CNS to the rest of the body and is divided into the somatic and autonomic systems.

Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements and relays sensory information to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion

What are the functions of CNS and Peripheral NS?

CNS (Central Nervous System): Controls the brain and spinal cord, managing thoughts, emotions, and movements.

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, handling voluntary actions and involuntary functions like heart rate.

What are the functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic NS?

Sympathetic: Prepares body for action

Parasympathetic: Calms body after action

Identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex

Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

Identify the role of each lobe

Frontal lobe: Involved with sophisticated mental abilities eg: reasoning, planning, problem solving

Parietal lobe: Received and processes bodily information. This sensory information includes touch and temperature

Occipita lobe: Is almost exclusivel devoted to the sense of vision. Damage to the occipital lobe can produce serious visual impairment.

Temporal lobe: Inolved with auditory perception (hearing) and also plays an imprtant role in memory, aspects of visual perception such as our ability to recognise faces and our emotional responses to sensory information.

Brain stem role

The brain stem controls basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and sleep. It also connects the brain to the spinal cord.

Cerebellum role

Responsible for muscle movement

Cerebrum role

Largest part of the brain and most developed. The cerebrum controls thinking, memory, emotions, and voluntary movements.

Corpus callosum role

The corpus callosum connects the left and right brain hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

Thalamus role

Sits in the middle of the brain. All incoming info (apart from smell) is recieved by the thalamus. It will then direct that info to the apporiate region of the brain.

Hypothamlamus role

Regulates internal body environment. About the siza of a pea. Releases hormones that are involved in thirst, hunger, and sleep.

Pineal gland role

Controls internal body clock: regulates sleep-wake cycle and releases sleep hormone

Hippocampus role

Responible for making memories and helps with direction

Amygdala role

Associated with emotions of fear and anger

Read through Phineas gage case study- Biological , psychologicak & social changes due to the frontal lobe

Biological Changes

Gage had a severe brain injury when an iron rod pierced his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. He survived but lost part of his brain tissue.

Psychological Changes

Before the accident, Gage was responsible and hardworking. Afterward, he became impulsive and irresponsible. He had trouble controlling his emotions and making decisions, though his memory and intelligence were intact.

Social Changes

Gage's behavior made it hard for him to keep a job. His relationships suffered, and people said he was "no longer Gage." His case drew public and medical interest, showing the link between brain injury and personality changes.

Draw a diagram of a neuron and label the following structures: dendrites, cell body/soma, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminals and the synapse.

Motor neurons function

Motor neurons carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles, telling them to contract and produce movement.

Sensory neurons function

Sensory neurons carry signals from sensory receptors (like skin, eyes, and ears) to the brain and spinal cord, allowing us to perceive sensations such as touch, sound, and light.

Interneurons neurons function

Interneurons relay messages between sensory neurons and motor neurons, helping coordinate responses within the nervous system.

What is the role of melatonin in sleep wake cycle

Incoming light → detected by the eyes → SCN receives this info → sends neural message to pineal gland → pineal gland secrete more/less melatonin depending on light.

What are the types of sleep?

NREM and REM

What are the different stages of NREM sleep

Stage 1 (N1) is a brief, light transition to sleep.

Stage 2 (N2) is light sleep with brain activity bursts, resisting disturbances, and is the most common stage.

Stage 3 (N3) is deep sleep with the slowest brain activity and becomes less frequent as sleep continues.

Explain the difference and simlarities between REM and NREM sleep.

Differences: REM Sleep: Dreaming, eyes move fast. NREM Sleep: No dreams, deep sleep. REM helps the mind. NREM helps the body.

Similarities: Both are types of sleep. Both help you rest.

What are the different types of dreams? Explain the characteristics of each type

• Lucid dreams - dreamer knows tha they are dreaming and can control the dream

• Nightmares - occurs in REM and are usually upsetting

• Night dreams - occur during REM sleep, usually pleasent

• Day dreams - When we pay attetion to our own thoughts rather then the outside world

What are the symptoms of insomina, sleep apnea, and narcolepsy?

Insomnia causes trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, waking up too early, daytime sleepiness, irritability, and concentration problems.

Sleep apnea causes loud snoring, breathing stops during sleep, gasping for air, daytime sleepiness, morning headaches, difficulty staying asleep, attention problems, and irritability.

Narcolepsy causes extreme daytime sleepiness, sudden muscle weakness (cataplexy), temporary paralysis when falling asleep or waking up, and vivid hallucinations.

What is forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is the use of psychology to help in legal cases, like understanding criminal behavior and evaluating the mental health of people involved in crimes.

Explain each component of emotion with examples.

Subjective Experience - What we feel and label as an emotion (e.g. feeling happy when we get a good score on test)

Physiological Arousal – How our body reacts to emotion (e.g. sweating, increased heart rate, etc.)

Expressive Behaviour - What others can see about what we are feeling (e.g. smiling when you see your test score)

What are the limitations of police lineups in identifying subjects?

• Witnesses may have an expectation that the suspect is in the line-up, leading to mistakenly identifying wrong person.

• Eyewitnesses may have observed suspect in

• less-than-ideal conditions (poor lighting, time, etc.).

• Photographs used for identification may not highlight features that eyewitness paid attention to.

How weapon focus affect the eyewitness testimony?

Weapon focus is when the presence of a weapon during a crime distracts witnesses, making them less able to remember other details like the perpetrator's face or actions accurately.

What is the difference between stalking and harassment?

Stalking: A course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to fear for his or her safety or the safety of others or suffer substantial emotional distress.

Harassment: causes harm or distress, putting people in fear in any reasonable person and of fear of violence, repeated attempts of imposed communications.

List three personality disorders with symptoms associated with stalking

Antisocial Personality Disorder

• Disregard for others' rights

• Persistent lying or deceit

Borderline Personality Disorder

• Intense mood swings

• Fear of abandonment

Narcissistic personality disorder

• Sense of entitlement

• Exploitative behavior in relationships

• Lack of empathy

What is the difference between personality disorder and mental disorder

Mental illness often impairs thinking and behavior beyond personal control, while personality disorders are perceived as controllable, frustrating family and friends.

What is criminal profiling? What is its role in forensic psychology

Criminal profiling is the overal picture or profile of a likely offender. When a forensic psychologist undertakes criminal profiling, they base their work on key assumptions.

Exaplain offender signature

An “offender signature” is a pattern of distinctive behaviours that are characteristic of the offenders emotional and psychological needs. There are 2 parts to offender signature: “signature aspect” and “signature behaviours.”

What are the two parts of offender signature? Explain with examples

Signature aspect

• Represents the emotional or psychological needs that the offender satisfies when committing an offence = motivation for committing an offence.

Signature behaviour

• Acts committed by an offender that is not necessarily to complete a crime, but what the offender must do in order to satisfy themselves.

What’s the difference between a sociopath and psychopath?

A sociopath exhibits impulsive behavior and can form some emotional attachments, but has a weak sense of right and wrong. A psychopath is manipulative, lacks a conscience, and cannot form genuine emotional connections.

What is sleep?

An altered state of consciuosness. It is not a period of being awake, or fully unconscious.

Why do we sleep?

It is a necessary process performed by humans and other organisms. It is essentail to every process in the body, affecting our physical and functioning, ability to fight diease and make immunity, and our metabolism and chronic disease risk.

Sleep characteristics

• We lose control of thought content

• Tasks cannot be performed

• Sensory stimuli is dead

• There is some emotional awreness

• Self control is lost

• Time orientation can be affected

Biological reason to sleep

Melation is released by the pineal gland typically at night time, to make us sleepy as part of the sleep wake cycle. Melatonin is released when our environment becomes darker, the info is sent to the suprachiasmatic nucleus.

Circadian Rythm

Meaning body clock. Biological processes that coordinate the timing of activity of body systems over a 24 hour period.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a tiny gland in your brain that helps control your sleep by producing a hormone called melatonin.

Ultradian Rythm

Biological processes that coordinate the timing of activity of body systems over periods of less than 24 hours.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a small cluster of cells in your brain that controls your body's internal clock, telling you when to sleep and when to wake up, mainly by responding to light.

The Evolutionary Theory

Theorises that the function of sleep is a means of increasing an animal’s chances of survival.

The Restoration Theory

Theorises that the function of sleep allows us to recharge our bodies, grow and recover from physical and psychological exertion during the day.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement)

It replenishes the mind. 20 - 25% of sleep time is spent in it. This is where dreaming is most likely to occur, and dreams tend to be more colourful and abstract.

NREM (Non-rapid Eye Movment)

It is subdivided into three stages. Stage 1 is light sleep, satge 3 is our deepest sleep. Around 75-80% of our total sleep is spent in it. Typically the first half of the night has more of it then the second half of the night.

What happens to our body when we fall asleep?

You enter NREM stage 1. You gradually fall into a deeper sleep, stage 2, before entering your deepest sleep, stage 3. Then you gradually work back up stages. However once you are back to stage 1, you enter REM sleep. This is when you are in your lightest sleep. This cycle is about 90-120 mins.

Different total amount of sleep needed for different ages

• Newborns sleep 14 to 17 hours

• Infants sleep 12 to 15 hours

• Toddlers sleep 11 to 14 hours

• Preschoolers sleep 10 to 13 hours

• Children sleep 9 to 11 hours of sleep

• Teenagers sleep 8 to 10 hours

• Adults sleep 7 to 9 hours

• Elders sleep 7 to 8 hours

Why enough sleep varies from person from person

Because of gender, genetics, age, activity level

Sleep deprivation

It is when you don’t get the right amount of sleep

Effects of sleep deprivation

• Higher anxiety

• Higher depression

• Impaired cognition

• Disruption of circadian rhythm

• Unhealthy cravings

Risks of sleep deprivation

• Increased risk of breast cancer

• Higher risk of diabetes

• higher risk of heart disease

• Risk of stroke

• Risk hypertension

• Risk of injury

Dreaming

Dreaming is a state during sleep when your brain generates stories, images, and sensations that can feel real, even though you're not awake.

Psychoanalytic dream theory

The theory that that storyline of a dream is known as manifest content, which contains dream symbols that can offer insights in to our underlying wishes and thoughts. The purpose of dreams is to express our hidden wishes, desires and fantasies.

Problem-solving theory

The theory that dreams have a prpose and help solve problems. In the theory, paying attention to dreams is unnecessary because dreams automatically deal with a person’s emotional problems.

Activation-synthesis theory

The theory that dreams are meaning less and should not be subjected to interpretation. They suggest that dreams are created by changed in neuron activiy that activates the brainstem during REM sleep.

Lucid dreaming

It’s where the dreamer is aware they are dreaming. The dreamer may be able to exert some degree of control over their dream.

Day dreaming

It is a normal state of consciousness and occur when we pay attetion to our own thoughts and ignore the external world.

Night dreams

These occur during REM sleep and a person can have many different dreams throughout the night. Usually occurs after 90 mins.

Nightmares

This is a bad dream. This occurs during REM sleep and are upsetting for the person. They are more common in children and peple often wake up during them.

Night terrors

These occur during NREM stage 3 and 4, they are characterised by the individual thrashing arouund in their sleep and waking in a state of panic. The dreamer can raely remember what the cause.

Sleep talking

This can occur in both REM and NREM. The talker usually mumbles recognisable phrases.

Sleep walking (somnambulism)

This involves walking while asleep, and usually happens in NREM stage 3 and 4. Most common in children up to puberty.

Insomnia

Typically involves persistent difficulty initating or maintaining sleep.

Sleep apnoea

It is a breathing disturbance that means that you cannot reathe regularly during sleep.

Narcolepsy

The irrestible urge to sleep that can occur at any time of the day. During sleep attacks, the sufferer enters REM sleep immediately leaving them virtually paralysed.

Name the nervous systems & subdivisions

Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomic Nervous System(ANS)
ANS - Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

Explain the sympathetic nervous system

Prepares body for action

Explain the parasympathetic nervous system

Calms body down after action

Explain the somatic nervous system

Voluntary Movements:
Sends the information about touch from the skin to the brain, resulting in the sensation of touch.

Explain the functions of the Autonomic Nervous system

Involuntary Movements:
Controls the functioning of internal organs automatically.
Carries messages to the CNS and internal organs & glands.

Name the brain regions

Forebrain
- cerebrum
- thalamus
- Hypothlamus
MidBrain
- Reticular formation
HindBrain
- cerebellum
- pons
- medulla

What area of the brain is the Parietal lobe in?

The parietal lobe is in the top area of the brain

What are the main functions of the Parietal lobe?

Receives & processes bodily information
Sensory information that includes touch & temperature

What area of the brain is the Frontal lobe in?

The frontal lobe is in the front area of the brain

What are the main functions of the Frontal lobe?

Involved in sophisticated mental abilities & thoughts.
Holds emotions & personality.
Helps initiate involuntary body movements.

What area of the brain is the Temporal lobe in?

The temporal lobe is in the bottom/side area of the brain

What are the main functions of the Temporal lobe?

Controls auditory perception (hearing)
plays an important role in memory & aspects of visual perception, such as abilities to recognise faces & identify objects.
Emotional responses to sensory information & memories.

What area of the brain is the Occipital lobe in?

The occipital lobs is located in the back area of the brain

What are the main functions of the Occipital lobe?

The occipital lobe is almost exclusively devoted to vision & visual information

Explain the role of the CEREBRAL CORTEX and what brain region it is located in.

Forebrain
Outer layer of the cerebrum

Explain the role of the CEREBRUM and what brain region it is located in

Forebrain
largest & most developed part of the brain.
2/3 of the brain's mass.
Composed of the right & left hemispheres.

Explain the role of the CEREBELLUM and what brain region it is located in

Hindbrain
Muscle movements, balance & posture.
Learning and memory.

Explain the role of the CORPUS COLLOSUM and what brain region they are located in

Forebrain
A thick band of nerve axons connection the two brain hemispheres.

Explain the role of the THALAMUS and what brain region they are located in

Forebrain
Middle of the brain.
Receives & directs all incoming information apart from smell.

Explain the role of the BRAINSTEM and what brain region they are located in

Connects cerebrum & brain to spinal cord & cerebellum

Explain the role of the HYPOTHALAMUS and what brain region they are located in

Forebrain
Regulates internal body environment.
Size of a pea.
Releases hormones involved in thirst, hunger & sleep.

Explain the role of the PINEAL GLAND and what brain region they are located in

Regulates internal body clocks; releases melatonin.

Explain the role of the HIPPOCAMPUS and what brain region they are located in

Responsible for making new memories & helps with our direction.

Explain the role of the AMYGDALA and what brain region they are located in

Associated with fear & anger.

Explain informed consent

Must give all information about the true nature & risks of the experiment & must obtain written consent