chapter 6: behaviour modification principles

What is a positive reinforcer

Anything that is added immediately after a behavior and causes that behavior to increase.

What is the principle of positive reinforcement?

A behavior is more likely to occur again when it is followed immediately by a positive reinforcer.

What is a baseline

The level or frequency of a behavior before a treatment or intervention begins.

Describe the baseline condition for jills program

The period when Jill’s behavior was observed and measured before the treatment was introduced

Describe the treatment condition for Jill’s program.

The period when positive reinforcement was used to increase Jill’s desirable behavior.

What type of research design was used to assess the effect of the treatment in Jill’s program?

A single-subject research design comparing behavior before and during treatment.

Describe an example of positive reinforcement of a desirable behavior.

A student completes their homework, and their parent gives them praise immediately afterward. The praise makes the student more likely to complete homework again.

What evidence shows that people’s behavior can be modified without their being aware of it

Studies show that people can change their behavior because of reinforcement even when they cannot explain or recognize that the reinforcement affected them

What is operant behavior? Describe an example and indicate how it fits the definition.

Behavior that acts on the environment to produce consequences that influence future behavior. Example: asking a friend for help and receiving help makes you more likely to ask for help again.

What is negative reinforcement? Give an example.

Negative reinforcement occurs when removing an aversive stimulus immediately after a behavior increases that behavior. Example: doing the dishes makes a parent stop nagging, increasing dishwashing.

How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?

Both increase behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes a stimulus.

In what way is positive reinforcement like gravity?

Both are reliable principles of behavior/nature that occur consistently under certain conditions

Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?

Being specific makes the behavior easier to identify and measure and helps ensure reinforcement is applied consistently.

List the five headings under which most positive reinforcers can be classified and give an example of each.

Consumable: candy.
Activity: watching TV.
Manipulative: playing with a toy.
Possessional: using a favorite chair.
Social: praise or attention.

Describe the Premack principle. Give an example.

A high-probability behavior can reinforce a low-probability behavior when access to the high-probability behavior depends on doing the low-probability behavior. Example: studying before getting to use your phone.

Describe the response deprivation model. Give an example

A behavior can act as a reinforcer when the person is performing it below their normal baseline level. Example: allowing an employee to attend a special meeting after completing an undesirable task when they have recently had fewer opportunities to attend meetings.

If Behavior 1 occurs 60%, Behavior 2 25%, and Behavior 3 15%, which method is better for increasing Behavior 1—the Premack principle or response deprivation model? Explain.

The response deprivation model, because Behavior 1 is already the highest-frequency behavior and therefore cannot be reinforced by a lower-frequency behavior using the Premack principle.

It is always the individual’s performance that tells you whether you have selected an effective reinforcer.” Explain.

Something is only a reinforcer if it actually increases the behavior. Whether an item is reinforcing depends on its effect on that individual’s behavior.

Using the definition of positive reinforcer, describe the steps to test if a particular item is a reinforcer.

First, measure the behavior without the item. Then present the item immediately after the behavior and measure it again. If the behavior increases, the item is a reinforcer.

Using the definition of positive reinforcer, how might you test whether an adult’s social attention reinforces a withdrawn child?

Measure how often the child interacts without the adult’s attention, then provide social attention immediately after interaction. If the child interacts more often, the attention is reinforcing.

Does extrinsic reinforcement undermine intrinsic motivation? Discuss.

Research discussed in the textbook indicates that extrinsic reinforcement does not necessarily undermine intrinsic motivation. External reinforcement can increase behavior without eliminating a person’s internal enjoyment or motivation.

What do behavior modifiers mean by the term deprivation? Describe an example.

D___ is the period when an individual does not experience a reinforcer, making it more effective. Example: being without food for several hours can make food more reinforcing.

What do behavior modifiers mean by the term satiation? Describe an example.

S___ occurs when an individual has experienced a reinforcer so much that it is no longer reinforcing. Example: eating a large amount of candy makes candy less reinforcing.

What is a motivating operation? Describe two examples, one of which was not in this chapter.

M____ is an event or condition that temporarily changes how effective a reinforcer is and changes behaviors that have been reinforced by it. Examples: food deprivation increases the effectiveness of food, and being very thirsty increases the effectiveness of water.

Should you tell an individual with whom you are using reinforcement about the reinforcement program before putting it into effect? Why or why not?

Yes. Instructions can speed up learning, help people work toward delayed reinforcement, and teach people to follow instructions.

If you instruct someone about a positive reinforcement program for their behavior, is that bribery? Why or why not

No. It is not bribery when the reinforcement is offered for a desirable behavior. Bribery involves offering a reward to encourage immoral or illegal behavior.

Distinguish between the direct-acting and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement.

Direct-acting: A behavior increases because it is followed by an immediate reinforcer.
Indirect-acting: A behavior increases even though the reinforcer is delayed, usually because instructions or self-statements connect the behavior to the later reinforcer.

What are three indicators that a behavior change is due to indirect-acting versus direct-acting effects?

1. The reinforcer occurs more than 30 seconds after the behavior.

2. The behavior increases before the reinforcer has occurred for the first time.

3. One occurrence of the consequence produces a large change in behavior.

When Coach Keedwell required young swimmers to show improved performance to earn a fun activity at the end of practice, was this a direct-acting or indirect-acting effect of reinforcement? Justify your choice.

It was a direct-acting effect because the fun activity was given immediately after the desired behaviors, directly increasing those behaviors.

Describe an example of contingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter

A student receives extra computer time after completing their homework. The computer time is contingent on completing the homework.

Describe an example of noncontingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter.

A teacher gives students free time at the end of every class regardless of their behavior. The free time is not dependent on a specific behavior.

What is adventitious reinforcement? What is a superstitious behavior? Give an example of each.

occurs when a reinforcer accidentally follows a behavior, increasing that behavior.
Superstitious behavior is behavior that increases because it has been accidentally reinforced.
Example: A person happens to tap their desk before getting a good grade and begins tapping the desk before every test.

What do we mean by the natural environment? By natural reinforcers? By programmed reinforcers

Natural environment: A setting where a person carries out normal everyday activities, rather than a training program.
Natural reinforcers: Reinforcers that naturally follow behavior in everyday life.
Programmed reinforcers: Reinforcers deliberately arranged by someone as part of a behavior modification program.

Describe three behavioral episodes in this chapter that involved natural reinforcers. Justify your choices.

Examples include reading signs → finding desired directions, eating → tasting food, and turning on a tap → getting water. These are natural reinforcers because the consequences occur naturally after the behaviors without being deliberately programmed.

What is meant by weaning an individual from a behavioral program?

Gradually eliminating programmed reinforcers so that the behavior is maintained by natural reinforcers in everyday life.

What is schedule or reinforcement thinning?

Gradually reducing the frequency of programmed reinforcement while maintaining the desired behavior.

Briefly describe, in a sentence each, eight factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement.

1. Specific behavior: Clearly define the behavior you want to increase.

2. Effective reinforcer: Choose something that actually reinforces the individual.

3. Motivating operations: Deprivation or satiation can change how effective a reinforcer is.

4. Reinforcer size: The amount of reinforcement must be large enough to increase behavior.

5. Instructions: Tell the person about the reinforcement plan to help guide behavior.

6. Immediacy: Give the reinforcer immediately after the desired behavior when possible.

7. Contingency: Make reinforcement dependent on the desired behavior.

8. Natural reinforcers: Arrange for natural reinforcers to eventually maintain the behavior.

Is it correct to conclude that a withdrawn child necessarily does not like attention from other people? Explain

No. A withdrawn child may still find attention reinforcing; their lack of interaction does not prove that they dislike attention.

Describe an example of the pitfall that involves a person unknowingly applying positive reinforcement to strengthen an undesirable behavior.

A child whines for a toy, and the parent gives them the toy to stop the whining. The child is more likely to whine in the future because the whining was reinforced.

State the partial-knowledge-misapplication pitfall. How was this pitfall exemplified by Coach Keedwell

It occurs when someone knows a behavioral principle but misunderstands how to apply it effectively. Coach Keedwell gave swimmers a fun activity regardless of their practice behavior, so the reinforcement was noncontingent and did not improve their practice behaviors.

Consider this statement: “A college student was reinforced for studying for three hours on the weekend by getting a good grade on the test the following week.” How does this statement exemplify the inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior pitfall

The good grade was delayed too long to simply explain the studying as direct positive reinforcement. The explanation should look for immediate consequences that strengthened the studying behavior.

State the second type of inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior pitfall. Describe an example

The second type is using labels to explain behavior instead of identifying actual behavioral causes. Example: saying a teenager does not clean their room because they are “lazy” instead of identifying the reinforcement maintaining their other behaviors.

Ideally, what four qualities should a reinforcer have (besides the necessary quality of functioning as a reinforcer)

A reinforcer should be readily available, deliverable immediately, usable repeatedly without rapid satiation, and quick to consume or use.