BIO MOCKS (everything but parts of different cells)

Levels of Organisation

Organelle: a specialized unit within a cell which performs a specific function

Cell: the basic building black of all living organisms

Tissue: A group of cells which work together to perform a shared function

Organ: A structure made up of different groups of tissues, working together to perform specific functions

Organ System: A group of organs with related functions, working together to perform certain functions with the body

Nerve cell

Transmits electrical signals rapidly

Adaptions:

long axon: transmits signals over long distances

Branched Dendrites: recieves signals from neurons

Myelin Sheath: insulates axon to speed up signal transmission

Root hair cell (plant)

absorbs water and nutrients from the soil

Adaptions:

Large Surface Area: increases the area for absorption

Thin Cell Walls: easy passage of water and nutrients

Many Mitochondria: Provide energy for active transport of nutrients

Sperm Cells

Fertilizes the egg cell

Adaptions:

Flagellum: propels the sperm cell towards the egg

Acrosome: contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the outer layers of the egg

Many Mitochondria: provides energy for the sperm’s journey

Ovum

Contains half of an organism’s genetic information (DNA) which will join with the sperm during fertilization

Adaptions: Large Size:

• This is because it contains a large amount of cytoplasm, which is filled with nutrients and organelles needed to support the fertilized egg)during its early development.

1. Haploid Nucleus:

   • The ovum contains a haploid nucleus, meaning it has half the number of chromosomes needed for a complete organism. This ensures that when it fuses with the sperm's haploid nucleus during fertilization, the resulting fertilized egg

Plant tissue

Dermal tissue:

covers the leaves, fruits, flowers, roots and stems. It stops the plant from loosing too much water.

Specialized cells in plants:

Xylem cells: transports water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant

adaptions: cells are dead at maturing resulting in hallow tubes. Their walls are strengthened with lignin to withstand the pressure of the water.

Phloem cells: transports sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

adaptions: sieve tube elements are connected by sieve plates, which allow for the flow of sugars.

Palisade leaf cells: to perform photosynthesis.

adaptions: high chloroplast density (maximizes the ability to capture light)

Columnar shape (allows light to penetrate deeper, reaching more chloroplast)

Large Vacuoles (maintains turgor pressure)

Plant organs

Roots, leaves, stems, flowers

Plant organ system

Shoot (all the parts of the plant above ground)

Root system (all parts of the plant underground

Animal organ systems

Circulatory: Heart, veins, arteries. Transports substances in the blood around the body.

Respiratory system: nose, mouth, throat, voice box, windpipe, lungs, and diaphragm. takes in oxygen and lets out carbon dioxide.

Digestive: Stomach&Intestines. Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients

Reproductive: Uterus, vagina, penis, testes. Creates offsprings.

Upper Epidermis

This is the upper layer of the leaf, right under the waxy cuticle (which it secretes)

Palisade Mesophyll

right under the upper epidermis and is column-shaped. Its function is photosynthesis as it contains many chloroplast.

Spongy Mesophyl

located under the palisade mesophyll, and is packed loosely for efficient gas exchange. The cells are covered by a thin layer of water. gases dissolve in this water as they move in and out of the cell. When the plant is photosynthesizing during the day, these features allow C02 to diffuse into the spongy mesophyll cells and oxygen to diffuse out of them.

Lower epidermis

The epidermis aids the regulation of gas exchange. It contains guard cells and stomata.

Guard cells

surrounds each stomata for their prootection. They help to regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata. The guard cells swells up and open the stomata for the exchange of gases when the plant an excess of water

Stomata

tiny pores in the epidermis that regulates gas exchange between the plant and environment. This is done through them opening and closing. As the stomata opens, water is lost by the process of transpiration. Closing the stomata helps to control this water loss.

Diffusion

the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration down the concentration gradient. This helps with the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

(ensures the essential nutrients are reaching cells and waste is removed, also enables the exchange in oxygen and co2 in respiratory system)

Osmosis

Water moves through a semipermeable membrane from a low to high concentration. It occurs when there is a difference in concentration on either side of the membrane. Water moves to balance the concentration. It continues until the concentration of solutes is equal on both sides of the membrane becoming a state oof equilibrium.

(maintains the balance of fluids)

Active Transport

process where cells move molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient. This means that substances are transported from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher. This requires energy, normally in the form of ATP.

(maintains homeostasis in cells and helps control concentration of substances)

Photosynthesis

Plants can make their own food, this process is called phootosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants produce glucose from simple inorganic molecules, carbon dioxide and water using light energy.

6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2

carbon dioxide + water + light energy → glucose + oxygen

(endothermic reaction as it requires energy in the form of light)

Light energy is absorbed in the chloroplast, the co2 comes from the air and enters through the stomata. Water enters the plants through the roots and is transported to the leaves through the xylem. Oxygen is formed as a waste product. Some is used for the plants respiration, but it is also released.

Biosynthesis

The process by which living things use chemical reactions to create products useful for cellular metabolism. These reactions are also known as anabolic reactions. It is where simple compounds are used to synthesize macromolecules.

The heart

Right Atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the whole body

Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood

Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body

Valves: prevent the back flow of blood

Vena Cava: carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the atrium

Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs

Pulmonary veins: carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

bloodflow

deoxygenated blood flows through the vena cava and enters the right atrium. Then it passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The blood is then pushed through the semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery. The blood travels to the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary vein to the left atrium. The blood goes through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle, then through the semilunar valve and out through that aorta and is transported to the rest of the body.

Blood

contains plasma, which is a straw colored liquid. also contains red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Red blood cells

transports the oxygen required for aerobic respiration. They also contain haemoglobin (iron) which gives it its red color.

Adaptions:

has no nucleus: packs more hemoglobin

Small & flexible: fit through narrow capillaries

Biconcave shape: maximizes their surface area for oxygen absorption

Thin: faster oxygen diffusion

White blood cells

part of the bondy’s immune system

defends against pathogenic microorganisms

Two types:

Phagocytes

detect chemicals produced by pathogenic cells

once they encounter a pathogenic cell, they engulf it and release digestive enzymes.

Lymphocytes

produces anti-bodies

(anti-bodies are proteins with specific shape complementary to antigens or pathogens)

Platelets

suspended in plasma

release chemicals that cause soluble proteins to form a mesh of insoluble fibers across the wound. They then stick together to form clumps that get stuck in the mesh. Red blood cells also get stuck in this mesh, forming a clot. This then develops into a scab.

Digestive system

Mouth: begins the digestion of carbohydrates

Stomach:begins the digestion of proteins; small molecules are absorbed

Small intestine (duodenum): continues digestion of carbohydrates and proteins; begins digestion of lipids

Small intestines (ileum): completes the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins into single sugars and amino acids; this is then absorbed including fatty acids and glycerol.

Large intestine: absorption of water; egestion of undigested food

Digestive enzymes in your gut help this process of absorption

Surface area of the small intestine

the surface area is folded and has small projections called villi. Villi are also covered in microvilli

This increases surface area over which digested food is absorbed.

Enzymes

carbohydrates, proteins and lipids need to be broken down. Enzymes help to do this as they are biological catalyst.

Enzymes have a complex 3d shape that includes a active site. The substrate (molecule taking part in the chemical reaction) fits into the active site. Once bound a chemical reaction occurs.

The active site of each enzyme is a different shape, This is because it has a specific shape to match its substrate.

Factors affecting enzyme action

Temperature:

low temps decreases molecular movement

Higher temps disrupts the shape of active site (denatures it)

PH:

changing the ph will also effect the shape of the active site

Specific enzymes have different ideal temperatures and ph levels.

Digestive system: ph 7.0-7.4

salivary amylease: 6.8

stomach protease: 1.5-2.0

pancreatic protease: 7.5-8.0

The lungs

Exchange surface for;

absorbing oxygen

transferring co2

The exchange of gases occurs between the alveoli and blood in the capillaries that supply the lungs.

Alveoli’s are microscopic balloon-shaped structures. They expand during inhalation, taking in oxygen, and shrinking during exhalation, expelling co2.