HES 240 - FINAL

Describe the main features of both quantitative and qualitative research

Quantitative

• Positivist Paradigm

• Variables and Hypotheses

○ IV, DV, Control variables

• Tests a hypothesis or hypotheses

• Precise Measurement and Testing

• Data = numbers + Statistical Analyses

• Linear Research Path

• Usually Deductive

Qualitative

• Interpretivist Paradigm

• Cases and Contexts

• Authentic interpretation sensitive to the context

• Focuses on meaning rather than precision

• Context is Critical

○ Same behaviors/events can have different meanings, lead to different consequences

• Nonlinear Research Path

• Usually Inductive

four most common forms of qualitative methods

○ Interviews

○ Documents & Artifacts

○ Observations

○ Photography & Video

Describe the differences between different forms of interviews and the questions used

Individual

One-on-one

Confidentiality

Very in-depth – allow for detailed descriptions

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Focus group

Group of people interviewed (6-8 - Homogenous but not close)

\- More likely to speak out against stranger over friends/family

Wider range of experiences/ general information on a topic

Group Think – Devil’s advocate- Researcher brings in other perspective
Limited confidentiality- can't control what people say or do after
Process Observer- Observer outside room watches participant behaviour

4. Interview Process

1. Decide on the format

• Individual vs Group

1. Develop Interview Guide

• First question – basic – ease into topic

• Followed by 5-10 more specific questions to dive deeper

1. Choose the site of the interview

• Volume of location

• Privacy

• distraction

1. Conduct and record the interview

• Conduct one or two pilot interviews first for data quality

1. Transcribe the interview

• Was most time consuming process

• Now use technology like zoom

5. Rapport

• Trust and respect for the interviewee

• Establishing a safe and comfortable environment

• Stages - apprehension, exploration, co-operation and participation.

6. Types of interview questions

• Introducing questions – warm-up

• Indirect questions – general topic

• Direct questions – focused on the individual

• Follow-up (prompt) questions – additional information• Interpreting questions – verification with use of summary

7. Use of silence in interview

• People feel the need to fill silence (forces talking)

• Increased comfort

• Increased depth of answers

• Overuse causes discomfort

• Use the right questions at the right

• Gives time for answer/question formation

8. describe types of documents and artifacts

• Books, papers, articles

• Files, emails, memos

• Statistical records

• Meeting minutes

• Physical objects

9. he purpose of observation in qualitative research

Purpose is to gain an in-depth understanding of the context (Can occur in lots of different settings)

Types of observing

Observing

• Details, details, details

Listening

• Listening vs Hearing

• What is said, how it is said - What is the difference?

Note-Taking

• Ongoing and continuous

12. Types of observers

• Complete observer - role concealed

Complete participant - interacts but concealed

• Observer as participant – interacts but known

• Participant as observer – prolonged participation - involved in all the central activities

13. Types of Observation Notes

1. Jotted – during observation, very quick & simple

2. Direct observation – immediately after to expand jotted

3. Researcher inference – initial interpretation

4. Analytic – next steps/changes in research study

5. Personal – journal entry

14. To describe various ways photography and video can be used in qualitative research

1. Photo-elicitation○ Interview includes photos that interviewee can reference

2. 2. Reflexive photography○ Usually 2 interviews with photos taken in between

3. 3. Photovoice○ Group-based○ Generally used for more action-oriented research

15. Videovoice

○ Group-based

○ Generally used for more action-oriented research

Similar to Photovoice but with use of video

16. What are the two key criteria for sampling in qualitativeresearch?

 Probability – Mathematically random process \n  Non-probability – No mathematically random process

Sample is key for: \n ○ Illuminates key feature being studied \n ○ Clarification and deepening understanding/meaning

17. Name and describe the 3 types of sampling in qualitative research

Use Non-Probability Types

1. Purposive (Purposeful) sampling

2\. Deviant case sampling

3\. Snowball sampling

Purposive (Purposeful) sampling

Expert uses judgement to select cases \n

Used when you need to select cases from a specific \n population to get high quality data needed to answer \n your question in an in-depth manner

Deviant case sampling (AKA extreme case sampling)

E.g., Atypical Success Story, Unique cases \n  Special case of purposive sampling \n  Particularly helpful for intrinsic case studies

Snowball Sampling

 Multistage technique \n  Used with difficult to reach populations \n  Used to sample a network \n  Represents the network through a sociogram

Combos of Sampling Techniques

Purposive followed by Snowball \n  When have a group of contacts but need \n larger sample or see the opportunity to have \n a higher quality sample

18. Name and describe the 8 criteria for excellent qualitative researchReader should feel the study lived up to what waspromised.

Tracy’s 8 criteria:

\n 1. Worthy Topic \n 2. Rich Rigor

3\. Sincerity \n 4. Credibility

5\. Resonance \n 6. Significant Contribution \n 7. Ethical \n 8. Meaningful Coherence

1\. Worthy Topic

• Relevant, timely, significant, interesting, evocative Covid-19Climate change-

• Studies that shake readers from common-sense assumptions/practices Myth busting

2. Rich Rigor

Rich data from variety of theoretical constructs,data sources, contexts and participants/samples

○ Is there enough data to support significant claims?

○ Did the researcher spend enough time to in the context/community to gather the data?

○ Did the researcher use appropriate procedures interms of sampling, data collection, and data analysis?

3. Sincerity

Researcher being honest about biases, goals, methods and challenges with the research

○ Self-Reflexivity – Bracket Interview

○ Transparency

Audit Trail – Honesty about the research process

4. Credibility

• Thick description – words/actions when divorced from context can mean different thing

• Triangulation or crystallization - Multiple types of data analyzed and presented

E.g., interviews, documents and observations

• Multivocality - Varied Voices from participants represented in your data

E.g., How many quotes from how many of the total participants?

• Member reflections or member checks

E.g., sending transcripts/results back to participants for verification

5. Resonance

Promotes empathy and identification in the reader,transferability

 Naturalistic generalization

6. Significant Contribution

Significant Contribution

○ Either conceptually/theoretically, practically, methodologically

7. Ethical

Research considers procedural ethics (human subjects), situational or cultural ethics, relational ethics, exiting ethics

8. Meaningful Coherence

Achieves its purpose, uses appropriate methods, meaningfully connects literature, research questions, findings and interpretations

identify the defining features of a case study

A detailed examination of a setting, a single subject, one group, a single depository of documents or one particular event/phenomenon.

Defining Features:

\- In-depth understanding of a case or cases

\- Use of multiple methods

○ Interviews, Observations, Documents, Timelines, Journaling

\- Purposive sampling and/or snowball sampling is generally used

Case Study Methodology

__Defining the case__

\- Nature and time period covered by the case study

\- Relevant social group, organization or geographical area

\- Priorities for data collection and analysis

__Case selection__

\- Dependent on the type of case

○ Intrinsic - uniqueness

○ Instrumental - typical

__Data collection__

\- Multiple sources of data

differentiate the 3 types of case studies

1. Intrinsic

2. Instrumental

3. Collective

Intrinsic Case Study

To understand a particular or ==**unique**==/unusual case

\- The exploration is driven by a desire to know more about the uniqueness of the case rather than to build theory.

* Example: a unique case of a particular disease, injury, disorder, event, experience

Instrumental Case Study

To understand some issue, problem or external theoretical question

24. Collective/Multiple Case Study

Extensive study of multiple instrumental cases

 Case can be an individual or a team/program/city

AKA – multiple case study, cross-case study, comparative case study, contrasting case study

To describe the challenges in conducting case study research

• Selecting from several possible cases

• Single or multiple case study ○ If a multiple case study, how many cases?

• Having time or resources to collect enough data

• Deciding the boundaries of a case

  • E.g, If studying a disease

    • Do you start at diagnosis, when do you end?

What is phenomenology

Focuses on understanding lived experiences of a phenomenon

 Emphasis is placed on describing what all individuals have in common when experiencing a phenomenon

\- Living with diabetes, Undergoing a type of physiotherapy, experiencing a concussion, experiences of joy while exercising

Identify the defining features of phenomenology

An emphasis on phenomena to be explored

* The lived experience of a particular phenomenon

Appropriate Research Question:

Does this question seek to understand several individuals’ common experiences of a phenomenon

Strong philosophical assumptions

philosophical assumptions

• A return to the traditional task of philosophy (The search for wisdom)

• A philosophy with presuppositions

  • To suspend judgement or bracket out

  • Epoch Bracketing interviews

• Intentionality of consciousness & refusal of the subject -object divide

  • Reality of an object is therefore related to one’s consciousness of it

  • Only perceived within the meaning of the experience of an individual

challenges in conducting phenomenological research

 Need to have an understanding of the broader philosophical assumptions

 Participants need to be carefully selected

 Bracketing can be difficult

 Depending on the approach taken can be too structured of an approach for some qualitative researchers

To identify the defining features of Ethnography

\n AKA Field Research or Participant Observation

Researcher inserts him or herself into a social setting for extended period of time

• Usually with some form of a culture-sharing group-

Looks for patterns within mental activities & behaviors

Extensive fieldwork with multiple methods

• ○ Observations, Interviews, Documents & Artifacts, Photography, Video-

Data analysis involves both emic and etic perspectives

• Emic – participant; Etic - researcher

31. Ethnography Field Research

• Select issues, themes or theory to examine- Identify and Locate a social group/culture

• 4 factors

  • Richness of data

  • Unfamiliarity

  • Suitability & Accessibility (Gatekeepers)- Level of Involvement

challenges of Ethnography

Entering the site

• ○ Flexible Plan, Negotiation & Disclosure

Learning the ropes

• ○ Presentation of Self

• ○ Researcher as Instrument§

  • Reflexivity

• Attitude of Strangeness

Building rapport & sensitivity to others

Extensive time in the field

Identify the steps and considerations involved in beginning fieldwork in ethnographic studies

Select issues, themes or theory to examine \n Identify and Locate a social group/culture – 4 factors

1. Richness of data

2. Unfamiliarity

3. Suitability & Accessibility (Gatekeepers) \n ○ Gatekeepers \n ○ Key informants

4. Level of Involvement

Recognize the importance of the need for Indigenous methodologies

Foundations of respect, relevance & responsibility

 Guided by Indigenous worldview, community relations and knowledge systems

* Animistic, relational, collective, contextual and place-based, spiritual, holistic, experiential.

 Implies an understanding of reciprocity and respect from a deep ethical perspective

Indigenous Methodologies challenges

Challenge # 1: Need to raise consciousness about Indigenous methodologies

 Indigenous researchers have responsibility to educate; research community has responsibility to become aware.

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Challenge # 2: The criticality of understanding the relational underpinnings

 Not possible to engage without a knowledge base in Indigenous knowledge systems & community relations

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Challenge # 3: Sustained efforts needed to push back against norms of Western intellectual tradition.

 Indigenous knowledges are distinct from Western knowledges. Arise from a different source, place, and history.

 Scholar Sandy Grande advocates for “restorative process” of co-habitation with all the complexities that this implies. (Grande, 2004, pp. 57).

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explain why indigenous methodology goes beyond juts the adoption of a methodology but rather needs to be grounded in indigenous ways of knowing and relational

 Indigenous research is not ad hoc or arbitrary. It is grounded in Indigeniety.

 Critical to have Indigenous people involved in some capacity

 There must be more than surface, rhetorical understanding of Indigenous knowledges.

 Require an agility with story and an understanding of orality. Interpretations grounded within an Indigenous worldview and community relations.

Explain in your own words why it is important to critique research.

it allows us to evaluate the quality and validity of the research.

identify any potential flaws or biases in the research, which can help us to determine if the conclusions drawn from the research are reliable and trustworthy.

identify any areas that need further exploration or investigation, which can lead to new discoveries and insights.

ensure that the research is conducted ethically and that the results are reported accurately.

State what is meant by peer reviewed research.

research that has been reviewed by experts in the field before it is published.

This process ensures that the research is of a high quality and is based on sound evidence. (to an extent)

It also ensures that any potential bias or errors in the research are identified and addressed before publication.

What are the two criteria for high quality journals.

1\. Acceptance Rate – average \~ 30% (range 1%-90%)

* High quality journals must have a rigorous peer review process to ensure the accuracy and quality of the published content

2\.Impact Factor - measures the importance of a journal \n  # of times selected articles are cited within the last few years. \n  higher the impact factor greater prestige for the journal

Describe what open access is and name one benefit as well as one drawback.

The Good – Science should be public – no restrictions \n \n The Bad – Publishers have passed on costs to researcher

• Range - $1000-10,000 (Average ~$3000.

The Ugly – Predatory Journals

• “entities that prioritize self-interest at the expense of scholarship and are characterized by false or misleading information, deviation from best editorial and publication practices, a lack of transparency, and/or the use of aggressive and indiscriminate solicitation practices.” – Grudniewicz et al., 2019

Why Critique Peer-Reviewed Research?

• Valued skill as a researcher or practitioner

• Although research conducted by individuals with \n expertise in a particular field there are also limitations:

  • Resources & Time

• No study is perfect

• Remember research and science is a process – built on \n lots of studies (consensus) not one study

To state and briefly explain the 8 aspects to consider when critiquing a research study

1. Research question & purpose

2. Review of the literature/Introduction

3. Appropriate methodology

4. Location of research

5. Participants (sampling/recruitment)

6. Data collection methods

7. Reliability/Validity (Quan) and Trustworthiness (Qual)

8. Overall writing

Critiquing Research \n 1. Research Question & Purpose

 Was the question interesting, important (significant) and/or timely? \n  Does it address a gap in the literature/understanding of the world? \n  Will the question lead to development or advances in theory or advances in practice?

Critiquing Research

2\. Introduction (Literature Review)

 Is the introduction cover the main concepts being examined? \n  Is necessary background information and previous research described in the introduction? \n  Is the literature integrative? \n  Does the introduction identify weaknesses in that topic area? \n  Does the introduction speak to the gaps in the literature – what we do not know yet?

Critiquing Research

\n 3. Appropriate Methodology

 Is the approach (design; methodology) chosen appropriate for answering the research question? \n  Do the author(s) explicitly state the design or methodology \n  Would a different methodology have been better to answer the research question? \n ○ Quantitative - Experiment or Quasi-Experiment, Survey, Non-Reactive \n ○ Qualitative - Case Study, Phenomenology, Ethnography \n  Did the authors conduct the study in an appropriate location

• Important in qualitative research to describe in depth the context

 Was the sampling/recruitment process appropriate for the study?

• Did the authors describe in sufficient detail what measures/methods they used to collect the data? \n • Did the authors provide adequate detail of the study procedures – timeline of what occurred during the study

• If quantitative – did the authors use reliable and valid measures? \n • How can you figure this out? Look at past studies with similar methods/variables

• If qualitative – did the authors address how they ensured study was \n trustworthy? Was there sufficient detail on trustworthiness? \n

Critiquing Research

4\. Overall Presentation/Writing

Overall writing was clear, well-structured, integrative

In what type of qualitative data collection method can confidentiality NOT be assured by the \n researcher?

Focus group interview

Which of the following is a direct question?

A) What factors do students consider when selecting courses? \n B) You said that time of day really influences your course selection, did I hear correctly that you \n enjoy morning classes because you find your are more focused? \n C) Can you give me a more specific example about the issues you experienced with registration \n D) What is the most important factor for you when you choose your courses? \n E) Tell me a little but about your university experience so far

D

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Which of the following is an analytic note?

A - Observe longer, record next session, add shot interview \n

B - Fun, playful, exciting \n

C - I want to play more, decompress when I observe the kids play \n

D - Social cognitive theory may help explain what is observed

E - Kids had a lot of fun on the tire swing, taking turns, spinning each other - lots of interaction, \n Kids also played the game grounders for a long time 25 min) lots of unning around - more \n vigorous activity than other activities in the playground.

A

\n When you have a hard to reach population what kind of sampling do you use? Hint: you use a \n sociogram

A - Purposive \n B - Stratified Random \n C - Snowball \n D - Deviant \n E - Cluster

C

Which of the following represents credibility when examining quality in qualitative research

A - Choosing a topic that is timely \n B - Being honest about challenges you experienced \n C - Having thick description and multivocality in your results \n D - When you can promote empathy in the reader

C

What type of case study would you use to examine a case that is unusual or unique

A - Instrumental \n B - Intrinsic \n C - Collective \n D - Descriptive

**B**

What can researchers do to address the philosophical assumption of presuppositions (to suspend judgment) in phenomenology?

A - Do a bracket interview \n B - Refuse the object/subject divide \n C - Use purposive sampling \n D - Integrate audio-visual methods

A

\n When doing fieldwork as pat of ethnography you want to make sure you are able to collect high quality data. Based on the four factors in selecting a site it is recommended that you choose a social group or site to study that you are vey familiar with - you know well. T or F

False

Below choose the reason why open access journals are good

A - It allows for researchers to be more transparent in the methods \n B - It provides the public the opportunity to review research conducted \n C - It has led to the increase in predatory journals - incentives to publish more with a lack of quality \n peer review \n D - It has decreased a researcher's ability to publish more

B

Which of the following is exploratoy mixed-methods design?

A) QUAL + QUAN \n B) QUAN → qual \n C) QUAL → quan \n D) QUAN qual or QUAL+quan

C

describe the common threads among the three themes identified by Wight et al 2019 on the Two-Eyed Seeing Approach

Indigenous and Non-Indigenous scholars need to use a relational approach built on reciprocity and trust that meaningfully integrates Indigenous ways of knowing and Indigenous leadership/communities in research

When we conduct research we want to 1 engage in systematic empiicism, 2)ask empiical questions and 3 create public knowledge. These three features descibe which of the following?

A) Science \n B) Quantitative Research \n C) Qualitative Research

A

Which of the following is TRUE in regards to qualitative research vs quantitative research?

A - Quantitative research is better at being adaptable with the research process \n B - Qualitative research is better at determining cause and effect \n C - Quantitative research is better at collecting data in naturalistic settings \n D - Qualitative research is better for understanding phenomena in an in-depth manner

D

The purpose of a study is to investigate whether participating in a 6-week health education \n program caused a decrease in sedentary behavior. What approach or methodology would you use?

A - A true experiment \n B - Case study \n C - Survey research \n D - Phenomenology

A

The purpose of a study is to gain an in-depth understanding of health insurance fraud in Canada. What approach or methodology would you use?

A - A true experiment \n B - Case study \n C - Non-reactive research \n D - Ethnography

**B**

You are interested in understanding the relationship between git and academic achievement GPA. You want to find out if these two variables are corelated but also the meaning students ascribe to their academic success and how they persevere during challenges in their academics. What research approach would you choose to use to embark on this work?

A - Survey research \n B - Non-reactive research \n C - Mixed-Methods research \n D - Case study

C

Qualitative - Methods

1. Interviews - Individual vs Focus Group; Planning the Interview; Rapport and Questions

2. Documents & Artifacts - Various Forms

3. Observations • Types of field notes – Jotted, Direct, Research Inference, Analytic, Personal

4. Photography/Video  3 methods – Elicitation, Reflexive, Photovoice

Sampling in Qualitative Research - Approach

 Non-probability – No mathematically random process \n Sample is key for: \n ○ Illuminates key feature being studied \n ○ Clarification and deepening understanding/meaning

Sampling in Qualitative Research - Types

A. Purposive or Purposeful sampling

B. Deviant case sampling

C. Snowball Sampling

Trustworthiness

What makes a qualitative study good?

Tracy’s Big Tent Criteria

1\. Worthy Topic

2\. Rich Rigor

3\. Sincerity

4\. Credibility

5\. Resonance

6\. Significant Contribution

7\. Ethical

8\. Meaningful Coherence

Qualitative - Summary of Methodologies

Case Study

Developing an in-depth description or analysis of a case/cases

Phenomenology

Understanding the essence of a lived experience of a phenomenon

Ethnography

Describing and interpreting a culture-sharing group

Case Study - Types

Intrinsic, Instrumental, Collective (Multiple)

Case Study - Defining Features

 Defining the case & case selection \\n

 Data - Multiple sources of data (multiple methods)

Case Study - Challenges

 Selecting from several possible cases; Single or multiple? \\n

 Having time or resources to collect enough data \\n

 Deciding the boundaries of a case

Phenomenology - Defining Features

The lived experience of a particular phenomenon

Phenomenology - Philosophical Assumptions

Epoche

Phenomenology - Challenges

 Need to understand the philosophical assumptions

 Participants need to be carefully selected

 Bracketing can be difficult

Ethnography - Defining Features

 Collecting data in the field for an extended period of time ○ Culture-sharing group

 Looks for patterns within mental activities & behaviors

 Multiple methods

 Data analysis involves both emic and etic perspectives

Ethnography - Fieldwork

4 factors (richness of data; unfamiliarity, suitability & accessibility; level of involvement)

Indigenous Methodologies - Defining Features

 Respect, Relevance, Responsibility

 Indigenous worldview and knowledge systems

 Reciprocity and Ethics

Indigenous Methodologies - Challenges

 Need to raise consciousness of these methodologies \n  Criticality of understanding relational underpinnings \n  Sustained challenges to Western intellectual traditions

Indigenous Methodologies - Key Takeaways

 This is not/should not be an ad-hoc approach \n  Importance to have Indigenous people/communities involved \n  Indigenous worldviews/knowledge systems (orality)/relations

Critiquing Research \n  8 Aspects to Consider

 Research Question & Purpose \n  Review of the literature/introduction \n  Appropriate Methodology \n  Location of the Research \n  Participants & Recruitment \n  Data Collection Methods \n  Reliability/Validity & Trustworthiness \n  Overall Writing

Two-Eyed Seeing

 Considered a promising way to engage in ethical exchanges between Indigenous & non-Indigenous people

 Creates space for both Indigenous & Western ways of knowing to be used together to further understanding of the world

 Identified uses include but not limited to: differences in health approaches, environmental planning, education, health policy

 Three main themes: Defining Characteristics; Suggested Attributes; Application

Positivism VS Interpretivism

Distinctions \n  One truth vs multiple truths \n  Objective vs subjective \n

Commonalities \n  Want to understand our world \n  Empirical observation

Mixed Methods Paradigm

Pragmatism \n  Rejects traditional dualisms \n  Primary importance placed on research question \n  Problem centred \n  Views truth, meaning and knowledge not as static but \n rather tentative and also changing over time \n  Recognizes value single and multiple realities \n  Test hypotheses for certain questions \n  Gain multiple perspectives for other questions

Mixed Methods Design

\n Every design has two strands \n  1 quantitative & 1 qualitative \n  Factors \n  Decide on relative priority of the strands \n ○ Equal, QUAN or QUAL \n  Decide on timing of the strands \n ○ Concurrent, Sequential

Major Mixed Methods Designs

Three designs \n  Convergent parallel design \n  Explanatory sequential design \n  Exploratory sequential design