E2: Cognitive #1

Q: What are heuristics?

A: Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” that simplify decision-making; fast and efficient but can lead to biases or errors. ex:choosing a brand you recognize

Q: What are algorithms?

A: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed correctly (e.g., a math formula).

Q: What is inductive reasoning?

A: Reasoning from specific examples to make general conclusions or predictions (bottom-up reasoning). ex: every cat ive seen purrs—→ all cats purr

Q: What is a descriptive approach?

A: Explains how people actually reason or make decisions, including errors and biases.

Q: What is a normative approach?

A: Defines how people should reason if they were perfectly logical or rational (the ideal standard). ex: using probabilites correctly

Q: What are base rates?

A: The actual statistical frequencies or probabilities of events or categories in the real world. ex: 5% of people are doctors

Q: How do people ignore base rates?

A: They focus on vivid or representative details (like stereotypes) instead of the true statistical likelihood. ex: he looks like a doctor , so he must be

Q: What is the availability heuristic?

A: Judging how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind (ease of recall). Ex: ffearing plane crashes after news stories

Q: What is the representativeness heuristic?

A: Judging probability by how much something resembles a typical case or stereotype, ignoring actual odds. ex: quiet person —> must be a librarian

Q: What is confirmation bias?

A: The tendency to look for or interpret information in a way that supports one’s existing beliefs or expectations. ex: only reading articles that agree with you

Q: What is deductive reasoning?

A: Reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions (top-down logic). If premises are true, the conclusion must be true. ex: all men are mortal —> socrates is mortal

Q: In problem-solving, what is the initial state, goal state, and current state?

A:

• Initial state: How things are at the start.

• Goal state: The desired outcome or solution.

• Current state: Where you are in the process toward the goal

Q: What is a weak method of problem-solving?

A: General strategies that can apply to many problems but lack specific, detailed knowledge (e.g., trial and error). (ex: like guessing a password)

Q: What is forward chaining?

A: Working from the initial state toward the goal, applying steps to get closer to the solution.

Q: What is backward chaining?

A: Starting from the goal state and reasoning backward to figure out the steps needed to reach it.

Q: What is the difference between experts and novices in problem-solving?

A: Experts have more organized knowledge, recognize patterns faster, and use efficient strategies; novices rely on surface features.

Q: What is the paradox of expertise?

A: Experts can struggle to explain their own thinking because many of their processes have become automatic or intuitive.

Q: How can analogies be helpful?

A: They allow people to solve new problems by recognizing similarities to past problems and applying similar solutions.