Unit 5 ID Terms Part 1 Forgetting/Memory

Definitions from AMSCO Book

Schema

a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps individuals organize and interpret information in the world; mental representation of a set of connected ideas.

Memory

learning that has continued over time; allows us to encode, store, and retrieve information over time.

Information-Processing Model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages: 1)encoding 2)storage 3)retrieval.

Encoding

the first step when we are taking stimuli from the environment and converting it into a form or construct that the brain can understand and use.

Rehearsal

the second step when you are repeatedly practicing or reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory or to help encode it into long-term memory. It serves as a way to keep information “active” in our minds and make it easier to retrieve later.

Retrieval

the third step when you are recalling stored memories; bringing to information to mind that has been previously encoded and stored.

Parallel Processing

also called dual processing, interpreting numerous events and stimuli at the same time.

Multi-Store Model

the currently accepted model of memory, the three stages are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory; It outlines how information flows through these stores and how it is processed to be retained or forgotten.

Sensory Memory

The first stage which we process everything we sense, an activity that takes less than a second to several seconds; our senses take in information from the environment and hold it for a very brief period. It serves as a kind of temporary storage system, capturing an exact copy of the sensory input before it either fades away or is transferred to short-term memory if we pay attention to it. (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell)

Iconic Memory

a type of sensory memory that holds a brief visual image of what we have just seen. It lasts for only a fraction of a second before fading away unless the information is attended to and transferred to short-term memory.

Echoic Memory

a type of sensory memory that briefly retains auditory information. It captures sound stimuli and holds onto them for about 3 to 4 seconds, allowing us to process and make sense of what we hear even if our attention is momentarily elsewhere.

Selective/Focused Attention

the cognitive process when we voluntarily focus on a portion of our sensory input while ignoring other inputs.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

the memory system responsible for temporarily holding and processing small amounts of information for a brief duration, typically around 10 to 30 seconds. (limited-capacity)

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

the memory system responsible for storing information indefinitely, potentially lasting from minutes to a lifetime. (unlimited-capacity)

Episodic Memories

a type of long-term memory; it is the stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall (like episodes of a television show) and tell to someone else.

Semantic Memories

a type of long-term memory; that are not drawn from personal experiences but rather from everyday, common kinds of knowledge, such as the names of colors, the names of the states, and other basic facts you learn over the course of your life (general knowledge and facts about the world).

Procedural Memories

memories of how to do something, such as ride a bike, bake cookies, create code for a computer, tie your shoes, and all the other tasks you have learned.

Automatic Processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned material. This type of processing occurs effortlessly, without the need for conscious attention or deliberate effort. It contrasts with effortful processing, which requires active focus and work to learn new information.

Implicit Memories

type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to recall.

Priming

using cues to activate hidden memories.

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Explicit Memory

a type of long-term memory that involves information we can consciously recall and verbally express.

Declarative Memory

a type of long-term memory that involves information we can consciously recall and verbally express.

Non-Declarative Memory

a type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to recall.

Working Memory

a type of short-term memory that allows us to hold and manipulate information in our mind for brief periods while performing cognitive tasks.

Memory Span

the number of items a person can remember and repeat back using attention and short-term memory.

Digit Span/"Seven Plus or Minus Two"

the longest list of numbers that can be remembered and repeated back.

Chunking

combining or grouping bits of related information.

Maintenance Rehearsal

a technique used to keep information in short-term memory by continuously repeating it without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other knowledge.

Shallow Processing

(trying to learn ideas on a superficial level, only memorizing) and tend to forget the ideas quickly.

Elaborate Rehearsal

linking new information with existing memories and knowledge in LTM.

Deep Processing

involves elaborative rehearsal along with a meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned.

Recognition

the correct identification of previously learned material.

Recall

the direct retrieval of facts or information.

Pseudo-Memories

false memories that a person believes to be true.

State-Dependent Memory

most efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness, such as under the influence of a mind-altering substance, as they were when the memory was formed.

Mood-Dependent Memory

is the recall of information that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired; applies only when the moods are genuine and authentic, not temporary mood states.

Context-Dependent Memory

is the recall of information while in the same context or environment in which it was acquired.

Tip-Of-The-Tongue (TOT) State

the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable.

Serial Position Effect

a phenomenon that occurs when people recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the items in the middle.

Primacy Effect

the tendency of the first item to be remembered best and when theyrecall the last parts of lists.

Recency Effect

the tendency to remember the most recently presented items best.

Relearning

When you learn something that you previously learned.

Savings Score

the amount of time saved when relearning information.

Eidetic memory

when a person (usually a child) has visual images clear enough to be retained for at least thirty seconds and realistic in their vividness.

Savant Syndrome

a rare condition in which individuals with significant mental disabilities, such as autism spectrum disorder or major cognitive impairments, exhibit extraordinary abilities or talents in specific areas. These abilities can include exceptional skills in music, art, mathematics, or an impressive memory for details.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

a lasting strengthening of synapses that increases neurotransmissions, is currently believed to be a biological basis for learning and memory in mammals.

Hippocampus

LTP occurs in this, the brain structure most associated with emotion and the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term explicit memory.

Amygdala

is the primary processor of emotional reactions and social and sexual behavior; it also regulates the sense of smell, fear and aggression.

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

Basal Ganglia

Inside the cortex of the frontal lobe is a set of neurons called this; plays an important role in memory retrieval and procedural memory; key to creating and maintaining habits.

Retrograde Amnesia

forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma.

Anterograde Amnesia

occurs when the hippocampus is damaged, resulting in the inability to “create” long-term memories.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

(1850-1909) was the first to conduct experimental studies on memory to help answer this question, using himself as the subject; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well.

Learning Curve

the relationship between the increase of learning and experience. upward slope.

Forgetting Curve

the exponential loss of information shortly after learning it. declines over time.

Encoding Failure

occurs when a memory was never formed in the first place. The phrase “in one ear and out the other” is a great metaphor.

Memory Cue

any stimulus associated with a memory.

Trace Decay Theory

forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time; “if you don’t use it, you’ll lose it.”

Interference Theory

the theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember.

Retroactive Interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Repression

the pushing of painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness or consciousness.

Suppression

is a conscious process of deliberately trying to forget something that causes distress.

Flashbulb Memories

are vivid and detailed memories that people create during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events.

Elizabeth Loftus

studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony.

Misinformation Effect

new information alters the way previous information is held in memory.

Source Amnesia

the inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance (also called source misattribution).

Positive Transfer

When the mastery of one task aids learning or performing another.

Negative Transfer

When the mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another.