qual research (tb)

broad definition

produces word based date to understand phenomena from the perspective of the research participants

non-probability sampling

step 2 research methods

convenience purposive snowballing

convenience

the researcher chooses the closest or most accesible people

purposive

uses personal judgment to choose which participants best meet the purposes of the study

snowball

asking a current participant to recommend someone they know that also meets the requirements

qualitative sample size

Point of Saturation: Stopping data collection when new information no longer challenges or adds to the interpretive account [48].

• Existing Theory: Well-developed existing theories generate specific questions requiring smaller samples, while exploratory research without established theory requires larger samples [48].

• Account Depth: Lengthy and detailed accounts require fewer participants, whereas brief accounts require more participants [48].

• Kelly and Rodriguez (2006) Rules of Thumb: When a homogeneous sample is used or when protocols call for long sessions of information gathering, between 6 and 8 participants may be used. In explorative research or if collection methods are brief, 10 to 20 participants should be used [48].

• Participant Characteristics: The traits of the sample are often more central than size. It is valuable to select participants who are good communicators, open, non-defensive, interested in the research, and likely to understand the value of particip

step 3 data collection

non participant observation

Observing people without interacting with them [58]. Drawback: people may behave differently because they know they are being watched

particiapnt observation

Becoming part of the group and covertly observing behaviour without revealing research intentions [59]. This overcomes altered behaviour but has obvious ethical implications [

laboratory observation

Observing interaction from behind a one-way mirror in a laboratory-like setting

structured interview

Following a set list and sequence of questions to gather straightforward information

semi sturctured interview

Ensuring certain areas of questioning are covered, but without a fixed sequence or format.

unstructured interview

Using few predetermined questions, focusing on an issue but letting the flow and format be shaped by the interviewee. I

deal for gaining insight into participants' subjective interpretation of their experiences

focus group (interviews)

A moderated group discussion exploring a topic

6-10 is ideal

Advantage: Offers an interactive setting where statements by one participant can initiate comments and reactions from others, providing a wider perspective

step 4. analysis of data

transcription of data into written format

Thematic analysis

•Transcriptions get broken down into units of meaning (codes)

•Researcher uses techniques to place codes with similar meanings into broader categories (themes)

After organising, themes are used to explain the issue that you’re studying

Narrative analysis

•The researcher approaches the data like a story

⚬You construct the ‘narrative’

•Study changes over time

•‘And then?’

Show how participants understand themselves, past events, past actions and how they make meaning

Discourse analysis

•Emphasis on the role of language

•Researcher analyses the use and structure of language

⚬Reveals how participants represent and make meaning of the world

Draw attention to dominant meanings of a phenomena or issue

verification of qualitative data

correspondence checks

participant feedback

correspondence checks

Involving colleagues and other researchers to analyse the data independently, then comparing findings with the primary researcher's analysis

participant feedback

Taking the analysed findings back to the study participants to determine if they agree with the interpretation

alternative interpretations

Openly considering and reporting on alternative interpretations of the collected data

step 5 report findings

After analysing data, researchers must explain and interpret their findings, as well as critically reflect on the study to identify any undetected influences

Since no research is totally free from errors or bias, researchers must identify and mitigate these to the best of their ability

finding errors

interview bias

Influencing responses by asking questions in an aggressive, judgemental, or disinterested way

asking leading questions

or recording participants' answers incorrectly

particiapnt bias

Being unresponsive, providing inconsistent or purposefully false answers

purposefully providing false answers

having difficulty expressing themselves

analyst bias

Incorrectly classifying responses to open-ended questions,

entering data inaccurately,

choosing an inappropriate analytical procedure

researcher bias

Allowing personal views, ideological assumptions, and underlying beliefs about human experience to shape research topics, participant selection, and findings interpretation

the issue of objectivity and reflexivity

Traditional research strived for absolute objectivity

However, qualitative research rejects the possibility of researcher objectivity

Instead of trying to eliminate any research influence, qualitative research uses reflexivity

Reflexivity

active self-reflection by both the researcher and the participant

structure of research report

abstract

introduction

methodology

results

discussion

References & appendices

introduction

identify the research problem. what is known, unknown, and the significance

literature review

other background info

precise explanation of research problem, purpose of the study

methodology

description of research participants: population, sampling procedures, sample sie

data collection procedures

analytical methods

results

Describes main results.

qualitative reports use excerpts from transcripts to illustrate and ground findings [

discussion

Includes a summary and interpretation of findings,

states conclusions,

addresses limitations,

proposes recommendations for future research or interventions

step 6 theory building

confirmed: theory is strengthened

refuted: Psychologists propose refinements in line with the findings and subject the refined theory to the research cycle again

indigenous and decolonial methods

valuing indigenous identities

applying an Indigenous pragmatic lens

exhibit methodological flexibility

This involves researchers renegotiating their cultural identity to understand how colonisation has shaped their selves and others' identity [132].

For non-indigenous researchers, this means understanding their privilege, engaging in practices that rectify distorted knowledge systems, and advocating for affirmative research paradigms [

Prioritising the knowledge and voices of indigenous people and aligning research with indigenous values

assuming a range of research roles and applying 'alternative' techniques to acknowledge the complexities of indigenous knowledge production

Ethics

Beneficene

Non maleficence

Autonomy

Justice

Beneficence

Do good

Research in the best interest of participants

Aim for a positive outcome

Non maleficence

Do not harm

Unnecessary and unintentional

Autonomy

Respect the right to choose/ agency

Justice

Be fair irrespective of identity

Basic ethical considerations

RACIV

Anonymity

Confidentiality

Informed consent

Vulnerable populations

Confidentiality

Information that participants provide must be protected and must be
unavailable to anyone other than the researchers themselves.

Anonymity

Information that participants provide must not be linked in any way to
their names or any other identiers.

Vulnerable populrations

Those who may not fully understand

Researchers must be attuned to the special needs of such populations and
must not be patronising or condescending.