NATR 2050 Exam 3 - Counterman

Environmental ethics

Human beliefs about what is right or wrong with how we treat the environment.

environmental economics

the field of economics that links environmental and economic costs

environmental policy

Laws, rules, and regulations related to an environmental problem that are developed, implemented, and enforced by a particular government agency.

Conservation psychology

the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with a particular focus on how to encourage conservation of the natural world

Environmental sociology

the study of the interaction between society and the natural environment, including the social causes and consequences of environmental problems

Environmental anthropology

The field that studies how different societies understand, interact with, and make changes to the natural world.

Causes of coral bleaching

increased water temperature, rising pH levels, pollution, overfishing

Potential solutions to coral bleaching

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions, marine protected areas, sustainable fishing practices, coral restoration

List a CSS that frames the issue of coral bleaching

Environmental ethics because of the responsibility it puts on humans. We are the primary cause of pollution and climate change that cause this phenomenon and have a duty to prevent or mitigate this issue.

Water cycle function

recycles water so it is a constant resource for earth's creatures

watersheds

Area of land that drains to form a river or lake Also called drainage basins Separated by geological features (mountains or plateaus)

Open watersheds

eventually drain to sea

Closed watersheds

do not drain to sea

Ecology of water body types and related ecosystem services

1.) Lakes/ponds- standing water bodies, distinct vertical zones, vary in size, abundance of aquatic ecosystems and aquatic organisms depend on factors like water clarity, temp, and nutrients levels

2.) Rivers/streams- continuous, support variety of aquatic life including fish, invertebrates, and various plant species

3.) Wetlands- swamps/marshes/etc, highly productive ecosystems, provide ecological services like water purification and flood control

4.) Estuaries- freshwater meets salt water, nutrient cycling, biologically rich and serve as nurseries for many marine species including fish and invertebrates

5.) Oceans/seas- various zones, including the intertidal, pelagic, and benthic zones, home to an incredible diversity of marine life, from microorganisms to large mammals

6.) Coral reefs- found in warm, shallow, clear waters, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions, They are highly biodiverse and provide habitat for numerous species, particularly sensitive to environmental stres

Water distribution(drinking and flooding) causes and impacts

Causes of water distribution issues- unequal access to safe drinking water, climate change, population growth, infrastructure decay, deforestation and land use changes, industrial pollution

Impacts of water distribution issues-health impacts, economic costs, environmental impacts, social disruption, infrastructure damage, flood and agriculture, migration

Global freshwater storage and usage

Global Freshwater Storage:

Oceans and Seas: Oceans and seas contain the majority of Earth's water, accounting for about 97.5% of the planet's total water. However, this saltwater is not readily available for most human and terrestrial needs.

Glaciers and Ice Caps: Approximately 68.7% of Earth's freshwater is stored in glaciers and ice caps. These ice formations are primarily found in polar regions and mountain ranges.

Groundwater: Groundwater accounts for about 30.1% of the world's freshwater resources. It is stored underground in aquifers, porous rock formations, and sediment layers. Groundwater is a critical source of drinking water and irrigation.

Surface Water: Surface water, including rivers, lakes, and wetlands, constitutes only about 0.3% of Earth's freshwater. These water bodies are essential for various ecological, recreational, and industrial purposes.

Atmosphere: A small fraction of freshwater is present in the atmosphere as water vapor, which is part of the global water cyc

Water conservation strategies - policies & solutions

1. Water Pricing and Tariffs:

Implement tiered pricing systems where water rates increase as usage levels rise, encouraging users to conserve water.

Adjust pricing to reflect the true cost of water, including treatment and infrastructure maintenance.

2. Efficiency Standards and Regulations:

Enforce water-efficient appliance and fixture standards, such as low-flow toilets and energy-efficient washing machines.

Promote water-efficient landscaping practices and restrict water-intensive landscaping in arid regions.

3. Wastewater Recycling and Reuse:

Encourage the use of treated wastewater for non-potable purposes like irrigation, industrial processes, and toilet flushing.

Invest in infrastructure to treat and distribute recycled water.

4. Rainwater Harvesting:

Promote the capture and storage of rainwater for non-potable uses, such as landscape irrigation and toilet flushing.

Provide incentives and guidance for individuals and businesses to adopt rainwater harvesting systems.

5. Leak Detect

Wildlife management, game vs non-game

Game Species:

Definition: Game species are those animals that are hunted or trapped for sport, recreation, or subsistence. They are often subject to regulated hunting seasons and harvest limits.

Examples: Common game species include deer, elk, wild turkey, waterfowl (ducks and geese), upland game birds (quail, pheasant, grouse), and various species of fish such as trout and bass.

Management Goals: The primary goal of managing game species is to maintain sustainable populations while providing opportunities for hunting and recreational activities. Management may involve setting hunting quotas, seasons, and bag limits to control populations and promote healthy ecosystems.

Funding: Revenue generated from hunting licenses, permits, and excise taxes on hunting equipment often funds wildlife conservation and management programs.

Conservation Efforts: The conservation of game species is a priority for wildlife agencies, as hunting and trapping activities are an essential part of American and

Ethics of hunting and how context matters

Conservation and Sustainability:

In many cases, hunting can be an essential tool for wildlife conservation and population management. Ethical hunting practices may involve adhering to sustainable harvesting principles, such as following scientifically established quotas and seasonal restrictions to prevent overexploitation.

Subsistence and Cultural Practices:

In some indigenous and local communities, hunting is a traditional practice that provides essential food and resources. In such contexts, hunting may be considered ethical and even necessary for cultural and subsistence reasons.

Fair Chase and Respect for Wildlife:

Ethical hunting typically involves the principle of "fair chase," which means that hunters should not use excessive or unfair advantages over the animals they pursue. This can include regulations against baiting, spotlighting, and other unethical practices.

Reduction of Suffering:

Ethical hunters strive to minimize the suffering of the animals they hunt. This means usin

Policy, ethics, and economics of Wildlife Management

1. Policy:

Regulatory Frameworks: Wildlife management policies are established at various levels, including local, state, national, and international. These policies provide the legal framework for managing wildlife, defining hunting seasons, bag limits, and conservation measures.

Conservation Laws: Legislation, such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, provides legal protection to threatened and endangered species and establishes recovery plans.

Public Input: Public participation is often integral to wildlife policy development. Stakeholders, including hunters, conservationists, and indigenous communities, may have a say in shaping wildlife management policies.

Interagency Cooperation: Many wildlife management issues require collaboration among multiple agencies, such as wildlife agencies, environmental departments, and federal organizations. Coordination is essential for effective policy implementation.

2. Ethics:

Fair Chase and Respect for Wildlife: Ethical hunting practices involve

Explain examples of Env policies related to Wildlife Management

Endangered Species Act (ESA) (United States): The ESA is one of the most well-known wildlife conservation policies globally. It provides legal protection for species that are at risk of extinction and mandates the development of recovery plans for these species. The Act restricts the taking, trading, or harming of listed species and their habitats.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): CITES is an international treaty aimed at regulating the trade of wildlife and plant species that are threatened with extinction. It places restrictions on the international commercial trade of species listed in its appendices.

Migratory Bird Treaty Act (United States): This act protects migratory birds by regulating their hunting, capturing, and selling. It provides the framework for the management of migratory bird populations and their habitats.

National Park and Protected Area Systems: Many countries establish national parks and protected areas as pa

Economics of Fishing, hunting, wildlife viewing

1. Fishing:

Recreational Fishing: Recreational fishing is a popular and economically significant activity. It contributes to local economies through the sale of fishing equipment, boats, and fishing licenses. In many areas, recreational fishing supports tourism and related industries.

Commercial Fishing: Commercial fishing is an industry that provides seafood for global markets. It generates revenue through the sale of fish and shellfish, employment in fisheries and processing, and the export of seafood products.

Fisheries Management: Economic considerations are essential in fisheries management. Policies must balance sustainable resource use with economic benefits. Measures may include fishing quotas, seasonal closures, and regulations to prevent overfishing.

Aquaculture: The aquaculture industry involves the farming of fish and seafood products. It is a rapidly growing sector that contributes to the global supply of seafood and generates economic returns.

2. Hunting:

Recreational Hun

Biodiversity definition and types

Species Diversity:

Species diversity is the most straightforward aspect of biodiversity and refers to the variety of different species present in a particular area or on Earth as a whole.

It includes the number of species and the relative abundance of each species within a given ecosystem.

High species diversity is a key indicator of a healthy and resilient ecosystem.

Genetic Diversity:

Genetic diversity focuses on the genetic variation within and among populations of a species.

It is essential for the adaptability and long-term survival of species, as it enables them to evolve and respond to changing environmental conditions.

Genetic diversity provides the raw material for natural selection and adaptation.

Ecosystem Diversity:

Ecosystem diversity involves the variety of ecosystems, habitats, and ecological processes present on Earth.

It encompasses the diversity of landscapes, from forests and grasslands to wetlands and marine environments.

Different ecosystems provide distinct servic

Ecosystem services & economics

Provisioning Services:

Economic Value: Provisioning services include the production of goods like food, water, timber, and fiber. These products have direct economic value as they are traded in markets, contribute to GDP, and provide livelihoods for millions of people worldwide.

Agriculture: Ecosystems provide fertile soil, pollination, and water resources essential for agriculture, which is a foundational sector of the global economy.

2. Regulating Services:

Economic Value: Regulating services encompass the control of natural processes and include services like climate regulation, flood control, and disease regulation. The economic value of these services lies in preventing and mitigating environmental and economic risks.

Flood Protection: Wetlands and natural water storage areas reduce the economic impacts of floods by absorbing and regulating excess water.

Carbon Sequestration: Forests and other ecosystems sequester carbon, mitigating climate change and its associated economic costs

Global patterns of biodiversity

1. Latitudinal Gradient:

Biodiversity tends to increase from the poles toward the equator. This pattern is known as the "latitudinal diversity gradient."

The tropics, near the equator, are the most biodiverse regions, with a high number of species and a wide variety of ecosystems.

The reasons for this gradient are complex and involve factors like climate stability, evolutionary history, and ecological interactions.

2. Altitudinal Gradient:

Biodiversity also varies with altitude. As one ascends a mountain, the diversity of species and ecosystems typically decreases.

This is because temperature, climate, and ecological conditions change with altitude, leading to different habitats and species compositions.

3. Continental Patterns:

Each continent exhibits its unique patterns of biodiversity. For example, South America is known for its incredible diversity of species, including a vast array of Amazon rainforest life.

Islands, particularly remote ones, can host unique and endemic species du

Differences in biodiversity among communities

Geographic Location:

Biodiversity is influenced by geographic factors. Communities located in different parts of the world may have distinct species compositions and levels of biodiversity.

For example, tropical rainforests, which are primarily found near the equator, are known for their incredibly high species diversity compared to temperate or polar regions.

Habitat Type:

Different habitat types can support varying levels of biodiversity. Forests, grasslands, wetlands, and marine environments all have their own unique species assemblages.

Each habitat type provides different resources and ecological niches, influencing the types of species that can thrive there.

Elevation and Altitude:

Biodiversity often decreases with increasing altitude. Mountainous regions, such as the Andes or the Himalayas, may have varying biodiversity at different elevations.

This altitudinal diversity gradient is driven by changes in climate, temperature, and habitat structure.

Size and Isolation:

The size an

Threats to biodiversity - natural and anthropogenic

Natural Threats:

Climate Change: Natural changes in climate, such as glacial-interglacial cycles, can influence biodiversity. However, the current rate of climate change, driven by human activities, is occurring much faster than many species can adapt, leading to disruptions in ecosystems and potential extinctions.

Natural Disasters: Events like wildfires, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and hurricanes can cause sudden and severe impacts on ecosystems, leading to habitat destruction and the loss of species.

Disease Outbreaks: Natural diseases, pathogens, and parasites can impact wildlife populations and even lead to population declines and extinctions. Emerging infectious diseases, sometimes exacerbated by human activities, can be particularly damaging.

Predation and Competition: Natural predation and competition among species are part of ecological processes. However, invasive species can introduce new predators or competitors, leading to imbalances in ecosystems.

Anthropogenic (Huma

Biodiversity conservation strategies

Habitat Protection and Restoration:

Designating and managing protected areas, such as national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine protected areas, to safeguard critical habitats and ecosystems.

Restoring degraded or damaged habitats through reforestation, wetland restoration, and other conservation practices.

Sustainable Land Use and Resource Management:

Promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries practices that minimize habitat destruction, overharvesting, and pollution.

Implementing ecosystem-based management to balance resource use with ecological sustainability.

Conservation Legislation and Regulations:

Enacting and enforcing laws and regulations to protect endangered and threatened species and their habitats.

Implementing international agreements and conventions like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Invasive Species Control:

Managing and eradicating invasiv

Conservation policy impacts and examples

Habitat Protection and Restoration:

Impact: Habitat protection policies can safeguard critical ecosystems, reduce habitat loss, and promote the recovery of endangered species.

Example: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides legal protection for threatened and endangered species and their habitats, helping to prevent habitat destruction and promote conservation efforts.

2. Protected Areas and Reserves:

Impact: Establishment and management of protected areas help conserve biodiversity, provide opportunities for research, and support ecotourism.

Example: Yellowstone National Park in the United States is a protected area that conserves a diverse range of ecosystems and species, while also attracting millions of visitors annually.

3. Sustainable Resource Management:

Impact: Conservation policies that promote sustainable resource management help maintain ecosystem health and support long-term resource availability.

Example: The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification program e

Nature Based Recreation Definition

outdoor recreational activities and experiences that take place in natural environments, such as forests, parks, rivers, mountains, and other natural landscapes.

Major periods of recreation history/public lands

1. Early Indigenous Use:

Long before European settlers arrived, indigenous peoples in North America had their own recreational and subsistence activities on public lands. These activities included hunting, fishing, gathering, and cultural ceremonies.

2. Westward Expansion and Homesteading (19th Century):

The westward expansion of the United States saw the government granting land to settlers through programs like the Homestead Act. Many public lands were converted into private ownership through homesteading.

3. National Parks Movement (Late 19th Century):

The late 19th century witnessed the establishment of the first national parks, starting with Yellowstone in 1872. This period marked the birth of the conservation and preservation movements in the U.S.

4. Creation of Public Lands Agencies (Early 20th Century):

The National Park Service (1916) and the U.S. Forest Service (1905) were established to manage and protect public lands. These agencies played a pivotal role in developing recre

Examples of federal government agencies providing outdoor recreation

National Park Service (NPS):

The NPS manages and maintains national parks, national monuments, historical sites, and other protected areas. It offers a wide range of recreational activities, including hiking, camping, wildlife viewing, and educational programs.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS):

The USFS manages national forests and grasslands, providing recreational opportunities such as hiking, camping, fishing, and hunting. It also maintains a vast network of trails and campgrounds.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM):

The BLM oversees public lands, which include a variety of outdoor recreational opportunities such as hiking, off-roading, boating, and camping. BLM lands are particularly popular in the western United States.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS):

The USFWS manages national wildlife refuges and other protected areas, providing opportunities for wildlife viewing, birdwatching, hunting, and fishing. Many refuges have hiking and nature trails.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers:

The Cor

Types of benefits from recreation

Physical Health Benefits:

Exercise and Physical Fitness: Many recreational activities, such as hiking, swimming, and sports, provide opportunities for exercise, which can improve cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and overall physical fitness.

Stress Reduction: Engaging in recreational activities can help reduce stress levels and promote relaxation, which in turn can have positive effects on physical health.

Weight Management: Regular recreational activities can aid in weight management and reduce the risk of obesity-related health problems.

Mental and Emotional Health Benefits:

Stress Relief: Recreation can serve as a stress-reliever, helping individuals relax and unwind from the demands of daily life.

Mood Enhancement: Physical activity and outdoor experiences release endorphins, which can enhance mood and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Cognitive Benefits: Recreational activities, such as puzzles, games, and intellectual pursuits, can stimulate cognitive abilities

Sense of place development and influences

Personal Experiences:

Participation in recreational activities like hiking, camping, birdwatching, or kayaking can create meaningful personal connections to natural settings.

Repetitive Engagement:

Repeated visits to the same natural area can foster a growing attachment and sense of belonging to that place.

Memories and Traditions:

Building positive memories and establishing traditions associated with a particular natural setting can deepen one's sense of place.

Familiarity and Comfort:

Spending time in nature and becoming familiar with the surroundings can lead to a feeling of comfort and ease in that environment.

Sense of Belonging:

Developing relationships with other individuals who share a love for the same natural space can enhance a sense of belonging and community.

Cultural and Historical Significance:

Understanding the cultural or historical significance of a place can contribute to its sense of place. This may include knowledge of indigenous history, cultural practices, or his