AQA A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY - Issues + Debates

What is the nature-nurture debate?

Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited/acquired characteristics

What does nature refer to?

Innate biological factors (genes, neurochemistry, hormones and evolution)

What does nurture mean?

Environmental influences (upbringing, learning, culture)

What does heredity refer to?

The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

What is the heritability coefficient?

A numerical figure ranging from 0-1 which indicates the extent of genetic basis of a characteristic (how much of the variation in a characteristic within a population is due to genetic differences)

Value of 1 = complete genetic determinism

What is meant by the interactionist approach?

Believing that behaviour is a result of both nature + nurture

What are 2 examples of the interactionist approach?

• diathesis-stress model

• epigenetics

What is an example of a theory that demonstrates the interactionist approach?

Lerners levels of the environment

Suggested that both nature and nurture are strongly intertwined

E.g. gene expression, child’s temperament impacting parents reprocity

What is meant by the diathesis-stress model?

Behaviour is caused by a bio/environmental vulnerability that when coupled with a bio/environmental trigger is expressed

What is an example of diathesis-stress model?

OCD → individual who inherits genetic vulnerability with the OCD may not develop it unless combined with a traumatic event

What is meant by epigenetics?

A change in genetic activity without changing the genes themselves as a result of interactions with the environment

Explain why epigenetics may lead to lifelong impacts

Certain genes are switched on/off due to aspects of lifestyle/events (E.g. diet, smoking) which can have a lifelong influence even when you stop
Your altered genetic code may impact the genetic code of your children + t`heir children

What did nativist Renè Descartes believe?

All human characteristics including psychological characteristics are determined by your genes (intelligence, aggression, personality)

What are 2 types of psychologists that support the nativist view?

Evolutionary

Biological

Does the heritability coefficient focus on one individual or a group?

The heritability coefficient → refers to the variation within a group not the individual themselves

What are 2 types of psychologists that support the empirical view?

Social learning theorists

Behaviourists

What did John Locke believe as an empiricist?

The mind is a blank slate and is shaped by the environment

What is meant by Lerners levels of the environment?

• Pre natal experience = mothers physical and psychological state during pregnancy

• Post natal experience = social conditions the child grows up in and the cultural and historical context they are a part of

Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate: interactionist approach

P: A limitation of the nature-nurture debate is that it presents two explanations as separate and conflicting, when research suggests they work together.

E: The interactionist approach suggests that behaviour results from an interaction between genetic predisposition and the influence from the environment. For example, a person may inherit a vulnerability to depression, but stressful life events determine whether the disorder develops

T: This means that the debate is potentially too reductionist because it attempts to explain complex human behaviour by considering a single factor. By recognising that both biological and environmental influences contribute to behaviour, the interactionist approach provides a more complete and realistic explanation. Therefore, many psychologists argue that the debate is outdated, because now the focus is on how nature and nurture interact rather than deciding which is more important.

Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate: Epigenetics

P: Research into epigenetics challenges the traditional nature-nurture debate

E: Epigenetics suggests that environmental experiences can alter gene expression by switching genes on/off without altering the DNA sequence itself

T: This indicates that genes do not operate independently to the environment. Instead the environment can impact the expression of genetic information in an individual's life. As a result, it is difficult to distinguish between nature and nurture because both influence each other constantly. Therefore, psychologists now focus on understanding how both interact with each other rather than asking whether behaviour is caused by nature/nurture, suggesting that the traditional debate is too simplistic.

Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate: Twin Studies

P: Twin studies provide evidence that genetic factors influence behaviour
E: Identical twins, who share 100% of their genes, generally show higher concordance rates for characteristics such as intelligence and schizophrenia than non-identical twins.

T: This supports the view that inherited factors contribute to behaviour. However, identical twins are also more likely to experience similar environments than fraternal twins, making it difficult to separate genetic and environmental influences. Consequently, twin studies cannot prove that genes alone determine behaviour. Instead, they suggest that both nature and nurture contribute, supporting the interactionist perspective.

Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate: Practical Applications

P: Understanding both nature and nurture has led to valuable practical applications

E: Biological explanations have contributed to drug therapies for mental disorders, while environmental explanations have informed psychological therapies, educational interventions and parenting programmes.

T: This demonstrates that recognising the contribution of both biological and environmental factors has improved the effectiveness of treatment and intervention. If psychologists focused exclusively on either nature/nurture, potentially beneficial approaches could be overlooked. Therefore, adopting an interactionist perspective has increased the practical value of psychological research by encouraging more comprehensive methods of prevention + treatment.

What is meant by free will?

Concept that humans can make choices + their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by biological/external factors

What is meant by determinism?

View that an individual’s behaviour is shaped/controlled by internal/external forces rather than an individual’s will to do something

What does it mean to believe in free will?

We may still accept that biological + environmental forces exert some influence BUT we can still override these forces + control our own thoughts + behaviour

Which approach advocates free will?

Humanistic

What does believing in determinism mean?

Free will does not determine behaviour in any way
All behaviour has a cause + is thus predictable

Explain the 2 types of determinism

• Hard determinism = all behaviour is caused (causes that be recognised + identified) by something (internal/external factors - uncontrollable)

• Soft determinism = behaviour may be predictable but we also have free will and can make our own choices (restricted due to internal/external factors - to a limited range of possibilities)

Who + what approach advocates for soft determinism?

William James

Later became apart of the cognitive approach

What is meant by biological determinism?

Behaviour is caused by biological (genes, hormones, evolution) influences that we cannot control

What is meant by environmental determinism?

Behaviour is caused by features of the environment (systems of reward + punishment) that we cannot control

What is meant by psychic determinism?

Behaviour is caused by unconscious psychodynamic conflicts we cannot control

What approach emphasises biological determinism?

The biological approach → e.g. influence of genes on mental health

Also considers influence of environment on our biological structures

Which approach emphasises environmental determinism?

SLT → Skinner believed that choice is a facade and is based on all the net reinforcement that we have received in the past

All behaviour is a result of conditioning

Which approach emphasised psychic determinism?

Freud’s theory → also believed like Skinner that free will was an illusion

Emphasised influence of biological drives + instincts

No behaviour is an accident, even slips of tongue reveal unconscious beliefs

Human behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood

Evaluation of the free-will determinism debate: Limitation of free will

P: A limitation of free will is that it cannot easily explain behaviours that occur outside of conscious control

E: Individuals with OCD and schizophrenia often experience behaviours and thoughts that they cannot simply stop.
T: This suggests that behaviour is sometimes influenced by biological/psychological processes beyond conscious awareness. Therefore, only using free will as an explanation of behaviour may oversimplify human behaviour by ignoring factors that prevent personal control. This supports the view that determinism is required to explain specific behaviours.

Evaluation of the free-will determinism debate: Strength of free wil

P: A strength of free will is that it supports the idea of personal responsibility
E: Society believes that individuals are capable of making choices and should therefore be held accountable for their actions through systems such as the criminal justice system and education
T: If all behaviour was determined by factors outside an individual’s control, justifying praise, punishment and blame would be difficult. Therefore, the idea of free will is important as it encourages individuals to take responsibility for their behaviour and has a strong conceptual role in society.

Evaluation of the free will determinism debate: soft determinism

P: The debate may be too simplistic because many psychologists support soft determinism rather than the two extreme positions.

E: Soft determinism proposes that behaviour is influenced by biological and environmental factors, yet individuals still have some capacity to make voluntary choices within these constraints.

T: This recognises that people are neither completely controlled by external forces nor entirely free from them. Consequently, soft determinism facilitates a more balanced explanation of behaviour by considering both causal influences and personal agency. Therefore, many psychologists argue that the most accurate explanation lies between the two extremes rather than fully supporting either free will/determinism.

Evaluation of the free will determinism debate: scientific credibility

P: Determinism increases psychology’s scientific credibility

E: Scientific research aims to identify cause-and-effect relationships through controlled observation and experimentation. This assumes that behaviour is determined by factors that can be measured and investigated objectively.

T: If behaviour occurred was only due to free will, it would be hard to identify consistent patterns/make reliable predictions. As a result, the assumption of determinism allows psychology to develop scientific theories that can be tested and replication. Therefore, determinism strengthens the identification of psychology as a science.

What is gender bias?

When a psychological theory/research does not justifiably represent that experience + behaviour of men + women

What are 3 types of gender bias?

alpha, beta, androcentrism

What is meant by beta bias?

Research that focuses on the similarities between men + women and presents a view that minimises their differences

Assuming that research findings apply equally to both men + women even if women are excluded from research

What is meant by alpha bias?

Research that focuses on difference between men + women and presents a view that exaggerates these differences
Believes that differences are fixed + inevitable → heightens/devalues value of women in relation to men

What is culture bias?

Interpreting all experiences through the ‘lens’ of your own culture, failing to consider the impact of cultural differences on behaviour

What is universality?

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience + upbringing

What does bias prevent?

universality

Why is bias inevitable?

Psychologists have beliefs + values that are influenced by social + historical context (where they live) → resulting in their research having subjectivity despite claims of it being ‘facts’

What is androcentrism?

When theories/research is male-centered
Women’s behaviour in comparison is often seen as inferior/pathological (taken as a sign of illness)

What is an example of androcentrism?

Premenstrual syndrome medicalises women’s emotions (e.g. anger), blaming it on women’s hormones

Whereas for men, anger is a rational response to external pressures

Why is a lot of psychological research deemed to be culturally biased?

Relies mostly on WEIRD populations/USA/undergrad stud in psych

They set the norm/standard for specific behaviour, whereas behaviour for non-Western/poorer countries = abnormal/inferior

What does WEIRD refer to?

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic

What is ethnocentrism?

Judging other people’s cultures from the standards/values of your own culture and believing that your culture is superior to others

What is an example of ethnocentrism?

Strange situation → led to misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other countries which were seen to deviate from the American norm

E.g. Japanese babies → lots of separation anxiety due to the way that their mothers have raised them

What is cultural relativism?

The norm + values, as well as ethics + moral standards can only be meaningful + understood within specific social + cultural contexts

What is the etic vs emic approach?

Etic: looks at behaviour from outside of a given culture + attempts to describe these behaviours as universal

Emic: functions from inside a culture + identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

E.g. Starbucks (same univerally) vs McDonalds (tailors to country’s tastes)

What is an example of a study that applies an imposed etic approach?

Ainsworth + Bell’s research → studied in 1 culture (America) + assumed ideal attachment type based off this

What is an example of alpha bias?

Freud’s psychodynamic approach

Freud argued that boys + girls experience different conflicts in their psychosexual development → girls do not suffer the same Oedipal conflict as boys + therefore do not identify as strongly with their mothers as boys do with their fathers → due to girls being inferior to males + developing a weaker superego → exaggerates differences between men and women

What is an example of a theory that has gender bias?

Bowlby’s theory → alpha bias → argued that maternal deprivation has long-term social and emotional effects → suggests mother is primary caregiver → despite no evidence of negative implications for fathers as primary caregivers

Evaluation of culture bias - limitation

P: Cultural bias reduces the validity of psychological theories because findings from one culture may not apply to others

E: Many classic psychological studies were conducted were conducted from Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic (WEIRD) societies, yet their conclusions were often assumed to apply universally

T: This ignored the influence of cultural norms, values and experiences on behaviour. As a result, theories developed from one cultural group may fail to explain behaviour accurately in different societies. Therefore, culturally biased research may provide explanations that lack external validity because they cannot be generalised beyond the population that was studied.

Evaluation of culture bias - ethnocentrism and imposed etic

P: Ethnocentric research can lead psychologists to judge other cultures using the standards of their own culture

E: An imposed etic occurs when concepts/measures developed in one culture are applied directly to another without considering cultural differences. This may mean that behaviour is interpreted inaccurately.

T: Consequently, researchers may mistakenly conclude that other cultures are abnormal only because they differ from Western norms. This can reinforce stereotypes and reduce the validity of psychological explanations. Therefore, psychologists should have culturally sensitive approaches that recognise the diversity of human behaviour rather than assuming one culture provides the standard for all others.

Evaluation of culture bias - strength

P: Cross-cultural research helps overcome cultural bias by comparing behaviour across different societies

E: By studying people from lots of cultures, psychologists can identify which behaviours are universal and which are shaped by cultural influences.

T: This allows researchers to develop theories that are more representative of humanity as a whole rather than one cultural group. However, cultural differences are often complex and can be hard to interpret accurately. Therefore, although cross-cultural research cannot remove cultural bias entirely, it provides a more balanced and valid understanding of human behaviour rather than relying on a single cultural perspective.

Evaluation of culture bias - strength

P: A strength of modern psychology is that researchers have become increasingly aware of cultural bias

E: Many contemporary studies now include participants from different cultures and compare behaviour across societies rather than relying only on Western populations.

T: This has improved the external validity of psychological theories as findings are more representative of the global population. Consequently, psychologists are better able to distinguish between behaviours that are universal and those that are culturally specific. Therefore, greater cultural awareness has strengthened the accuracy and applicability of psychological research.

Evaluation of gender bias - limitation of alpha + beta bias

P: Gender bias reduces the validity of psychological theories because it may misrepresent the true differences between males and females.

E: Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences, whereas beta bias minimises them by assuming that findings from one gender apply equally to the other. For example, Freud’s psychodynamic approach has been criticised for suggesting that females are morally inferior to men
T: This may result false conclusions about psychological processes and reinforce stereotypes rather than reflecting actual differences. As a result, theories influenced by gender bias may provide explanations that are not as applicable to one gender and may influence education, healthcare/employment unfairly. Therefore, identifying and reducing gender bias is vital if psychology is to provide valid and equitable explanations of behaviour.

Evaluation of gender bias - strength

P: A strength of psychology is that being aware of gender bias has led to improvements in research

E: Feminist psychologists have criticised earlier research for having only male samples and for interpreting female behaviour as inferior. As a result, modern psychological research is more likely to have both male and female PP and consider gender differences when interpreting findings.

T: This has increased the validity of psychological research as conclusions are less likely to be based on the experiences of one gender alone. Consequently, theories are now more representative of the wider population and can be applied to both men and women. However, gender bias has not been reduced entirely, as some areas of psychology still lack representation of one gender. Therefore, although psychology is more balanced, researchers must continue to consider gender when designing and interpreting studies.

Evaluation of gender bias - limitation

P: A limitation of attempts to reduce gender bias is that research challenging traditional views is not widely published/accepted

E: Research that contradicts established gender stereotypes/dominant theories may be given less attention to, making it less likely to influence psychological practice and thinking.

T: This means that gender bias may continue to exist even when evidence against it is available as psychologists and the wider public may be more likely to accept findings that fit existing beliefs. As a result, outdated assumptions about gender may persist within psychological theories and society despite conflicting evidence. Therefore, only conducting unbiased research is not enough; psychologists must ensure that diverse findings are considered equally for gender bias to be reduced.

Evaluation of gender bias - socially sensitive implications

P: Gender-biased research can have great social consequences

E: Research implying that one gender is more emotional naturally/less capable than the other may influence public attitudes and encourage discrimination.

T: This demonstrates that psychological research can impact society beyond the laboratory by shaping stereotypes and influencing policy. Consequently, researchers have an ethical responsibility to communicate findings carefully and avoid making random generalisations. Therefore, reducing gender bias is vital to promote equality within society, not just for scientific accuracy.

What is the difference between reductionism and determinism?

Determinism - why behaviour occurs (internal/external causes)

Reductionism - how behaviour is best explained (breaking complex actions down into simpler parts)

to do

holism, reductionism

idiographic, nomethetic

evaluating bias

What is holism?

The belief that human behaviour should be studied as a single, integrated whole, rather than being broken down into smaller, constituent parts

What is reductionism?

Belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the smaller, constituent parts

Can research be both reductionist/holistic?

Can only be one
The debate is about which is more preferred

What is holism also referred to as?

Gestalt psychology

What does believing in holism mean?

View of Gestalt psych → whole is greater than the sum of its part → essence of a person is more important than knowing parts of the person

Looks at system as a whole + sees subdivisions of behaviour as inappropriate

What is an example of a holistic theory?

Humanistic approach → focuses on individual’s experience as not something that can be reduced to e.g. biological factors → use qualitative methods to investigate self whereby themes are analysed rather than breaking the concept into component behaviours

What is reductionism based on?

The idea that all phenomena should be explained using simplest principles

What is meant by levels of explanation in the reductionist approach?

The idea that there are several ways (levels) that can be used to explain behaviour

Lowest level → physiological/biological explanations

Middle level → psychological explanations

Highest level → social/cultural explanations

Some levels may be more reductionist tahn others, e.g. biological

What is a demonstration of levels of explanation in OCD?

E.g. OCD

• social-cultural level - interrupts social relationships

• psychological level - e.g. a person’s experience of anxiety

• physiological level - e.g. abnormal functioning in frontal lobes

• physical level - e.g. movements (washing hands)

Only one considered

Why is the interactionist approach considered to be holistic?

Combines many levels rather than considering one to explain human behaviour

What is the difference between biological reductionism and biological explanation in the levels of explanation in reductionism?

Biological reductionism → suggests that only biological factors determine behaviour

In levels of explanation → more levels → more holistic → maps out all constituent components without necessarily saying one is more exclusively correct

What is biological reductionism?

A form of reductionism which attempts to explain behaviour at lowest biological level (genes, hormones, etc.)

What is environmental reductionism?

All behaviour is learned + acquired through interactions with the environment → conditioning focuses on simple stimulus-response links
E..g learning theory reduces the idea of love (between baby + feeder) to a learned association between person during feeding (NS) + food (UCS) resulting in pleasure (CR)

Evaluation of the holism-reductionism debate: strength of reductionism

P: A strength of reductionism is that it has helped to establish psychology’s status as a science.
E: Reductionist approaches, especially biological reductionism, investigate behaviour by examining measurable factors, such as genes, neurotransmitters and brain structures using objective scientific methods.

T: This allows psychologists to establish cause-and-effect relationships through controlled research, increasing the reliability and replicability of findings. As a result, reductionist explanations have contributed to psychology’s scientific credibility and have led to evidence-based treatments, such as drug therapies for mental disorders. However, explaining behaviour only in terms of its simplest components may overlook the complexity of human experience. Therefore, reductionism may produce incomplete explanations of behaviour even though it establishes psychology’s status as a science.

Evaluation of the holism-reductionism debate: balanced evaluation

P: Holism and reductionism may be difficult to distinguish from each other because different levels of explanation can complement one another

E: Modern psychological research often combines biological, social and cognitive explanations to understand behaviour. For example, many mental illnesses are explained using 3 different levels of explanation - biological, psychological, environmental.

T: This suggests that an approach that is entirely reductionist/holistic is not enough on its own. Reductionist research can identify specific mechanisms, while holistic approaches place these mechanisms within the wider context of an individual’s life. Therefore, the best way to understand behaviour may be to combine many levels of explanation rather than viewing them as conflicting perspectives.

Evaluation of the holism-reductionism debate: strength of holism

P: A strength of holism is that it considers behaviour as the result of many interacting factors rather than reducing it to a single cause
E: Humanistic psychology takes on a holistic approach by arguing that behaviour can only be understood by considering the whole person, including their emotions, thoughts and subjective experience.

T: This recognises the complexity of human behaviour and avoids oversimplifying rare psychological occurrences. Consequently, holistic explanations are often considered to have greater validity because they reflect real-life behaviour better. However, because many interacting variables are hard to isolate and measure, holistic explanations are harder to test scientifically. Therefore, although holism provides a richer understanding of behaviour, it may reduce scientific precision.

Evaluation of the holism-reductionism debate: limitation of reductionism

P: A limitation of reductionism is that it often ignores the interaction between different levels of explanation

E: For example, explaining depression only in terms of serotonin levels ignores the influence of life experiences, social relationships and cognitive processes.

T: This means reductionist explanations may not consider the full complexity of behaviour as rare psychological occurrences are often produced by many interacting factors. As a result, interventions based on a single explanation may not be effective for everyone. Therefore, reductionism may not explain behaviour fully, meaning that holistic approaches are needed.

• Humanistic Psychology: Humanists advocate for holism, arguing that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. They believe that to understand a person, one must focus on all aspects of their life, as explaining human behaviour in a reductionist way would dehumanize them.

  Humanistic psychologists use qualitative methods like case studies, diaries, and unstructured interviews to support their holistic investigations, aiming for a rich, in-depth understanding of individuals. They consider multiple factors interacting, such as environment, relationships, and emotions.

What is the idiographic approach?

Focuses more on individuals as a means of understanding behaviour rather than trying to form general laws of behaviour

What is meant by the nomothetic approach?

Aims to study human behaviour through development of general principles + universal laws

What does the idiographic approach involve?

Obtaining lots of detailed information about an individual to help understand human behaviour

Number of PP → single individual/group/instituition

Some research may include information about family/friends/others → have enough detail about the individual rather than make generalisations based off of them

What kind of research methods are used in the idiographic debate?

• Case Studies

• Unstructured interviews

• Diaries + journal records → provides personal accounts + insights into an individual’s experiences

• Thematic analysis → used to interpret qualitative data

What are 2 examples of case studies in memory?

KF

Clive Wearing

Challenge the MSM + provide evidence for different memory stores existing

What kind of research (qualitative/quantitative) is found in the idiographic approach?

Qualitative → PP interviewed in depth through unstructured interview → focus is on 1 aspect of behaviour (e.g. coping mechanisms) → data is analysed + themes are identified so that a conclusion is made

What is the belief of psychologists that support the idiographic approach?

believe that human beings are unique and should be studied as individuals to capture the complexity and richness of human experience

What are 2 examples of the idiographic approach in psychological research?

Humanistic → Rogers + Maslow believed in studying the whole individual rather than breaking down behaviour into parts → used qualitative methods e.g. case studies → understand unique experiences

Psychodynamic approach → Freud did aim for some general laws but his theories were based mainly on in-depth studies of single individuals, like Little Hans → emphasised importance of childhood events + their impact on later development through detailed investigations of patients.

What are the research methods used in the nomothetic approach?

• Experiments

• Meta-analysis → combining results from multiple studies to identify overall trends

• Correlations

• Structured observations → specific measurable behaviours recorded in large samples

What does the nomothetic approach involve?

Quantitative research

• seeks to quantify human behaviour

• hypotheses formed → sample of people are assessed (e.g. through structured questioning)

• numerical data is produced + then analysed for statistical significance

What are 2 examples of the nomothetic approach?

• Biological approach → scientific methods used to identify trends + generate causal laws, often explaining psychological disorders (e.g. OCD) through biological factors that are responsible for them, using techniques like EEG and twin studies

• Behaviourist approach → researchers like Skinner conducted studies (often on animals in controlled environments such as the Skinner box) to generate general laws of learning, e.g. classical + operant conditioning, which are then generalised to humans

Are the nomothetic/idiographic approach subjective/objective?

• Nomothetic approach → more objective - behavioural laws are only established if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised + objective way

• Idiographic approach → more subjective - individual experience + context is more important than some grand underlying reality

Evaluation of the idiographic/nomothetic debate: strength of nomothetic approach

P: A strength of the nomothetic approach is that it allows psychology to have scientific credibility.

E: Nomothetic methods use large samples, statistical analysis and controlled experiments to identify patterns and establish general laws of behaviour. For example, biological psychologists use brain scans and genetic research to identify biological causes for behaviour.

T: This increases the reliability and objectivity of psychological research as findings can be tested, replicated and applied to wider populations. As a result, the nomothetic approach has helped to establish psychology’s status as a science. However, general laws may overlook individual differences, so that the complexity of human behaviour is not fully explained.

Evaluation of the nomothetic/idiographic debate: strength of idiographic approach

P: A strength of the idiographic approach is that it provides a detailed understanding of individual experiences
E: Idiographic methods, e.g. case studies, qualitative research and unstructured interviews allow psychologists to investigate a person’s unique thoughts, experiences and feelings in depth. For example, Freud’s case study of Little Hans provided detailed insight into an individual’s psychological development.

T: This can reveal information that may be missed by nomothetic methods as human behaviour is not always predictable/same for everyone. Therefore, the idiographic approach provides a more complete understanding of individual experiences. However, as findings are based on small samples/single cases, they may lack generalisability.