Topic 49: Construction and Administration of the British Colonial Empire in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Joseph Conrad and Rudyard Kipling.

2. The British Empire. 2.1. North American Colonies. Export of resources and mercantile and navigation systems

• Early 18th century → Establishment for exporting commodities like timber, wheat, tobacco, and rice to European markets.

• British trade: supported by a mercantilist system enforced through the Navigation Acts: colonial exports would arrive through British ports.

2. The British Empire. 2.1. North American Colonies. What is the salutary neglect? Hudson Bay Company and New Amsterdam

• That the British government strategically exercised relatively little direct control over the colonies to gain their favor and keep exploiting.

• Hudson Bay Company expanded the fur trade exchanging European goods with Native American peoples.

• Establishment of additional colonies like Carolina and Pennsylvania.

• 1664 → Seize of New Amsterdam, which becomes New York.

2. The British Empire. 2.1. North American Colonies. Deterioration of relationships with the colonies and American Revolutionary War.

• Tea Act, Sugar Act (1764) Stamp Act (1765), Townshend Acts, Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party (1773)

• “No taxation without representation”.

• First and Second Continental Congress

• American Revolutionary War (1775-1783)

2. The British Empire. 2.2. Australia and New Zealand. Australia.

• After the loss of American colonies → prioritising colonisation in other parts of the world

• 1788 Started as a penal colony, more than 162,000 convicts by 1868. Then some of them stayed and later founded Australia.

2. The British Empire. 2.2. Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand.

• Under British control since 1840 through the Treaty of Waitangi (controversial)

• Controversial because the Maori and British versions of the treaty differed significantly.

  • Maori version → the English have the right to govern over British people (kawanatanga).

  • English version → the English have complete control over NZ.

2. The British Empire. 2.3. Canada

• After the Seven Years’ War and the Treaty of Paris, Canadian lands that belonged to the French fell into British hands, establishing the first British colony in Quebec.

• 19th century → Canada gained significant political autonomy.

• 1867, the Confederation and Dominion of Canada are created under the British North American Act → Canada has substantial control over it lands and affairs while maintaining allegiance to the British Crown.

2.3. Canada. The formation of the Commonwealth of Nations

• Commonwealth of Nations is currently formed by 56 former British Territories, including Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, etc. These countries nowadays recognise the King of England as head of state, while many others are independent republics.

• It is nowadays often labelled as a neo-colonial institution.

2. The British Empire. 2.4. India

• Began with the establishment of the East India Company in 1600, focused on trade . Company merchants operated within Indian sociopolitical structures of that time.

• Following the Battle of Plassey in 1775, control over Bengal

• Over following decades, EIC expanded its authority.

2. The British Empire. 2.4. India. How was British control reinforced?

• Sepoys (armies of Indian soldiers) commanded by British officers

• Princely states→ Indian rulers had limited authority and stayed under British influence. Highest power ALWAYS fell on British hands.

2. The British Empire. 2.4. India. Sepoy Munity and Independence.

• Growing dissatisfaction grew with the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Munity) after grease of pork and cow had been used to grease ammunition.

• It failed and the EIC was abolished. Rule of India passed to the British Crown, that promised them freedom of speech, religion, etc.

• The “Divide and Rule” → The British, afraid of further revolts, modified original Indian caste systems and purposely divided Hindus and Muslims.

• However, India or Bharat achieved independence in 1947

2. The British Empire. 2.5. China

• Problem? 18th century. British demand for Chinese goods like tea increased rapidly. China imported relatively few European goods, causing IMBALANCE.

• British solution? Expand the opium trade to China, producing widespread addiction and social disruption.

• Tensions led to the Opium Wars (1839-1842; 1856-1860). The Chinese LOST and the British Empire forced them to open additional ports for foreign trade and cede Hong Kong.

2. The British Empire. 2.6. Africa

• 18th century → European involvement in Africa largely confined to trade ports and slave trade.

• 19th century → “Scramble for Africa” and control over the continent’s interior.

• The British → West, East, Southern Africa. Like present day Nigeria, Gambia, Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa

• African resistance → often successful but eventually futile because of European possession of weapons, transportation, communication systems and strategic benefiting from alliances with local groups and internal divisions.

• Boer Wars (1880-1881; 1899-1900) were among the most significant conflicts in southern Africa, pitting British forces against Dutch-descended settlers.

2. The British Empire. 2.7. Administration and decline of the Empire

• Evolved considerably over time, but during the 19th century and early 20th century, some colonies gained extensive self-governance (Australia, NZ, South Africa, etc.) while keeping constitutional ties with the Crown.

• In contrast, predominantly non-European colonies like the Caribbean, India or Nigeria remained under control. It was after WWII that Britain couldn’t maintain them, which led to their independence.

3. Literature

Introduction. What are the central themes of Imperial literature?