Psych Exam 1 Study Guide

Development

Lifelong pattern of change and stability

Development includes changes in

The body and brain, thinking and learning, emotions, relationships and social behaviors

Developmental Processes: Biological Processes

Changes in the body, brain, genes, hormones, and physical abilities

Example: An infant’s brain developing or a child growing taller

Developmental Processes: Cognitive Processes

Changes in thinking, learning, memory, problem solving, and language

Example: A child learning how to solve a problem or understand language

Developmental Processes: Socioemotional Processes

Changes in emotions, personality, relationships, and social interactions

Example: An infant developing an attachment to a caregiver

Major periods of development

Prenatal Development, Infancy, Early Childhood, Middle and Late Childhood, Adolescence, Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood

Nature

Refers to biological and genetic influences on development

Examples: genes, inherited characteristics, brain development

Nurture

Refers to environmental influences and experiences

Example: family, education, culture, relationships, experiences

Continuity

Development occurs gradually and continuously

Discontinuity

Development occurs in distinct stages or steps

Early and Later Experience

How experiences at different points in life affect development

Examples: Are early experiences especially important? Can later experiences change earlier patterns? How do early and later experiences work together?

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Believed that behavior and personality are strongly influenced by unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and internal conflicts. Emphasizes the importance of early experiences in shaping personality.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Believed development occurs through a series of psychosocial stages.

Each stage has a challenge or conflict that influences development.

An important infancy stage is trust vs. mistrust. Infants develop trust when caregivers are consistently responsive and meet their needs

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

How children actively develop their thinking and understanding.

Children explore their environment, build knowledge, and change their thinking as they gain experience.

Includes stages of cognitive development.

During infancy, children are in the sensorimotor stage

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Believed that development is strongly influenced by social interactions, culture, and language.

Children learn through interactions with more knowledgeable people.

Learning is connected to the social and cultural environment

Information-Processing Theory

Compares the mind to a system that recieves information, processes information, stores information, and uses information.

Focuses on mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving

Behavioral Theory

Influenced by experiences and the environment.

Learning can occur through reinforcement, punishment, and conditioning

Social Cognitive Theory

People can learn by observing others and imitating behavior.

This emohasizes learning through observation and social experiences

Ethological Theory

Emphasizes the biological and evolutionary basis of behavior.

Focuses on behaviors that may help organisms survive, adapt, and develop relationships.

Also recognizes certain experiences may be especially important during particular periods of development

Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Believed development is influenced by multiple environmental systems.

A person’s development is affected by relationships and environments, including family, school, community, culture, and society

Sensitive Periods

A time when a person is especially responsive to certain experiences or environmental influences.

During this period, particular experiences may have a stronger influence on development

Observational Research

Observe behaviors without necessarily changing the situation

Example: Observing how infants interact with caregivers

Strength: Allows researchers tos tudy behavior as it occurs

Limitation: Observation alone does not prove that one factor causes another

Correlational Research

Examines whether two variables are related.

A correlation can show that variables are associated with one another.

Correlation does not establish causation.

Experimental Research

Experiments are designed to determine whether one factor causes changes in another.

Researchers manipulate one variable and observe its effect on another variable.

Independent Variable: Variable the researcher changes

Dependent Variable: Outcome that is measured

Longitudinal Research

Follows the same individuals over a long period of time.

Example: Following children from infancy through adolescence

Strength: Shows how indidviduals change over time

Cross-Sectional Research

Compares different age groups at the same time

Example: Comparing the memory abilities of children, teenagers, and adults

Strength: Allows researchers to compare different age groups more quickly

DNA

Contains genetic information

Genes

Units of hereditary information made up of DNA

Influence characteristics and development

Chromosomes

Contain genetic material, including genes

How are DNA, genes, and chromosomes connected?

Chromosomes contain DNA, and DNA contains genes

Mitosis

Process of cell division involved in growth and development

Produces cells that are genetically similar

Meiosis

Process involved in producing reproductive cells

Produces egg cells and sperm cells

Important for reproduction and genetic variation

Gene Expression

Refers to whether and how genetic information is used or activated

Can be influenced by environmental experiences

This means that genes matter, the environment matters, and development involves interactions between biology and experiences

Genotype

Refers to their genetic makeup

Phenotype

Observable characteristics

Can be influenced by both genes and environmental experiences

Nature and Nuture Work Together

Biological factors and environmental experiences interact

A person’s genetic characteristics may influence developmental, while experiences and environments can also influence how development occurs

Epigentics

Changes in how genes are expressed or activated without changing the basic DNA sequence

Environmental experiences can influence gene expression

Another exdample of how nature and nuture interact

Egg and Sperm Cells

Reproduction involves an egg cell from the female and a sperm cell from the male

These reproductive ccells combine during fertilization

Fertilization

Occurs when a sperm cell and an egg cell unite

Zygote

Resulting single cell

Contains genetic information that contributes to the development of a new individual

Prenatal Development

Occurs before birth

Major periods are greminal period, embryonic period, and fetal period

Germinal Period

Earliest period of prenatal development

Important events include fertilization, formation of the zygote, early cell division, movement toward the uterus, and implantation

Implantation

Occurs when the developing organism attaches to the wall of the uterus

Embryonic Period

Follows the germinal period

During this period major body structures start developing and important organs and systems begin forming

Fetal Period

Final major period of prenatal development

During this period growth continues, body systems continue developing, and the fetus becomes increasingly prepared for birth

Prenatal Infleunces

Prenatal development can be influenced by many environmental factors

Teratogens

An environmental agent that can potentially cause harm during prenatal development

Effects can depend on several factors like the timing of exposure since different body parts develop at different times, the amount of exposure can influence the effects, and the type, length, and amount of exposure can affect development

Other Factors Influencing Prenatal Development

Environmental conditions, health-related factors, and exposure to harmful substances or agents

Preterm Birth

Occurs when an infant is born earlier than expected.

Being born too early can create developmental challenges because development before birth was interrupted

Low Birth Weight

Refers to an infant having a lower-than-expected weight at birth

Low birth weight can be associated with developmental and health challenges

Cephalocaudal Pattern

Development generally proceeds from the head downward through the body

For example, infants generally gain control over their head and upper body before gaining full control over their legs and feet

Proximodistal Pattern

Development genreally proceeds from the center of the body outward

For example, infants develop control of their arms before developing more precise control of their hands and fingers

Infant Brain Development

The brain develops rapidly during infancy

Brain development supports physical development, thinking, learning, emotions, and behavior

Neurons

Specialized cells involved in communication within the nervous system

Communicate with one another and help support thoughts, movements, sensations, and other functions

Dendrites

Recieve information from other neurons

Axons

Carries information away from the cell body toward other cells

Terminal Buttons

Located at the ends of axons and help transmit information to other cells

Synapses

The connections or small space where communication occurs between neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that help neurons communicate

Myelin

A substance that surrounds and protects certain neural pathways

Helps communication between neurons become more efficient

Myelination

Process of forming myelin around neural pathways

Important because it improves the efficiency of communication within the nervous system

Synaptic Pruning

Refers to the process in which some neural connections are eliminated

Helps the brain become more efficient by strengthening and maintaining important connections while reducing unnecessary ones

Prefrontal Cortex

An area of the brain associated with important higher-level functions including aspects like planning, decision-making, and self-regulation

Motor Development: Reflexes

Automatic responses to certain stimuli

Infants have sucking, rooting, babbling, crying, etc

Gross Motor Skills

Involve large muscles and large body movements

Example: sitting, crawling, walking

Fine Motor Skills

Involve smaller and more precise movements

Example: ggrasping objects, using fingers to pick up small items

General Progression of Motor Development

Generally progresses as infants gain greater strength, better coordination, and more control over their movements

Motor Development influenced by Biology

Provides physical and neurological development that supports movements

Motor Development influenced by Experience

Practice hlpes infants develop and improve motor skills

Motor Development influenced by Environment

Opportunities and surroundings can help support or limit movement and exploration

Sensation

Involves recieving information through the senses

Examples include detecting light, sound, touch, taste, smell

Perception

Involves interpreting and making sense of sensory information

Development of the Senses

Infants experience the world through their developing senses

Major senses develop and change during infancy, helping infants to detect information, recognize people and objects, and learn about their environmentPi

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Schemes. Assimilation, Accommodation, Sensorimotor Development, Object Permanence

Schemes

Organized patterns of thought or action used to understand the world

Infants develop schemes through their experiences

Assimilation

Occurs when new information is understood using and existing scheme

The person fits new information into what they already know

Accommodation

Occurs when a person changes and existing scheme or creates a new scheme because new information does not fit

Sensorimotor Development

Occurs during infancy

Learn through their senses, actions, and interactions with objects and people

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exisst even when they cannot be seen

For example, an infant eventually understands that a toy still exists when it is hidden

Language Development

Progresses throughout infancy

Infants gradually move from early forms of communications toward greater understanding and use of language

Language Development: Biological Influences

Biological development supports language abilities

Brain development and other biological factors contribute to an infant’s ability to hear, process language, and communicate

Language Development: Environmental Influences

Infants benefit from hearing language, interacting with others, and having opportunities to cummincate

Importance of Caregiver Interactions

Caregivers support language development by talking to infants, responding to their sounds, and engaging in communication

Emotions in Infancy

Help infants communicate needs, respond to experiences, and connect with caregivers and others

Emotion Regulation

Refers to the ability to manage and respond to emotional experiences.

Infants depend on caregivers to help them calm down, manage distress, and regulate emotional responses

Emotion Regulation

Connected to brain development

Infants gradually become more capable of managing attention, behavior and emotions

The Amygdala

Plays an important role in emotional responding

Associated with processing emotional information and responding to emotionally significant solutions

Display Rules

Social or cultural expectations about how and when emotions should be expressed

Be able to recognize examples where people may change or control their emotional expressions based on social expectations

Mutual Regulation

Emotional interactions between infants and caregivers

The infant influences the caregiver’s behavior and the caregiver influences the infant’s emotional state and behavior

Social Referencing

Occurs when infants look to another person for emotional information about how to respond to a situation

Example: An infant encounters something unfamiliar and looks at caregiver’s reaction before deciding how to respond

Temperament

Refers to individual differences in behavioral and emotional characteristics

Infants may differ in areas such as activity level, emotional reactions, and ability to regulate behavior

Effortful Control

Refers to the ability to regulate attention and behavior

Related to self-regulation

Examples: controlling impulses. managing attention, regulating behavior and emotions

Biology in Temperament

Characteristics can contribute to individual differences

Experience in Temperament

Can also influence how temperament develops and is expressed

Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy involves psychosocial conflict of trust vs. mistrust

Infants develop trust when caregivers are consistently responsive and meet their needs

Positive caregiving experiences can help infants develop a sense that others can be depended on and their needs will be met

Early Social Interactions

Infants participate in early social interactions with caregivers and others

Example: Face-to-Face Play, can involve looking at one another, facial expressions, vocalizations, and emotional responses

Support social and emotional development

Attachment

Close emotional bond between an infant and caregiver

Develops through repeated interactions and caregiving experiences

Harlow’s Research

Focused on attachment and contact comfort

Research demonstrated the importance of comfort and physical closeness in attachment

Not based only on recieving food or meeting physical needs The

The Strange Situation

Used to assess attachment

Involves observing how infants respond in situations involving their caregiver, separation, and reunion

Caregiver Sensitivity and Secure Attachment

Important influences on secure attachment

Responsive caregivers notice an infant’s needs, respond appropriately, and provide support and comfort