AP Psych Human Development II

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated stimulus over time.

Associative Learning

Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli or behaviors.

Stimulus

An event or object that elicits a response.

Respondent Behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

Operant Behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.

Cognitive Learning

Learning that involves understanding, knowing, or applying knowledge, not just a change in behavior.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology that focuses on observable behavior and its relationship with the environment.

John Watson

Psychologist known for founding behaviorism and conducting the 'Little Albert' experiment.

Ivan Pavlov

Psychologist known for his work on classical conditioning with dogs.

Neutral Stimuli

A stimulus that initially does not trigger a response but becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response

A natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning in which a response is established.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a new conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond to only the conditioned stimulus.

Little Albert Experiment

John Watson's experiment demonstrating classical conditioning by associating a white rat with a loud noise to elicit fear.

Preparedness

The innate predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others.

John Garcia

Psychologist who demonstrated the role of biological predispositions in conditioning, particularly in taste aversion.

Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular taste associated with nausea or discomfort.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behavior is influenced by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment.

Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Operant Chamber

A device used to study operant conditioning, often called a Skinner box.

Reinforcement

The process of strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence that encourages its occurrence.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by providing a pleasant consequence after it occurs.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food or water.

Conditioned Reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Reinforcement Schedules

The frequency and timing of reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement is provided after every correct response.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcement is provided only after some responses, not every time.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set period of time.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable period of time.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Positive Punishment

Adding an undesirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.

B.F. Skinner

Psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning and the development of the operant chamber.

Biofeedback

A technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes by providing real-time feedback.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviors, making it difficult to condition certain behaviors.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated in behavior.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a problem’s solution without trial and error.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist known for his work on observational learning and social cognitive theory.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.

Modeling

The process of demonstrating behavior for others to imitate.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action.

Prosocial Behaviors

Positive, helping behaviors that benefit others.

Antisocial Behaviors

Negative, harmful behaviors that violate social norms or harm others.