AP Psych Human Development II

Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated stimulus over time.

Associative Learning: Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli or behaviors.

Stimulus: An event or object that elicits a response.

Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

Operant Behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences.

Cognitive Learning: Learning that involves understanding, knowing, or applying knowledge, not just a change in behavior.

Classical Conditioning: A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Behaviorism: A school of psychology that focuses on observable behavior and its relationship with the environment.

John Watson: Psychologist known for founding behaviorism and conducting the "Little Albert" experiment.

Ivan Pavlov: Psychologist known for his work on classical conditioning with dogs.

Neutral Stimuli: A stimulus that initially does not trigger a response but becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response: A natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

Conditioned Response: A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Acquisition: The initial stage of learning in which a response is established.

Higher-Order Conditioning: A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a new conditioned stimulus.

Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

Spontaneous Recovery: The sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond to only the conditioned stimulus.

Little Albert Experiment: John Watson's experiment demonstrating classical conditioning by associating a white rat with a loud noise to elicit fear.

Preparedness: The innate predisposition to learn certain associations more easily than others.

John Garcia: Psychologist who demonstrated the role of biological predispositions in conditioning, particularly in taste aversion.

Taste Aversion: A learned avoidance of a particular taste associated with nausea or discomfort.

Operant Conditioning: A learning process where behavior is influenced by consequences such as reinforcement or punishment.

Law of Effect: Edward Thorndike's principle stating that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Operant Chamber: A device used to study operant conditioning, often called a Skinner box.

Reinforcement: The process of strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence that encourages its occurrence.

Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus: A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement for a specific behavior.

Positive Reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by providing a pleasant consequence after it occurs.

Negative Reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant consequence.

Primary Reinforcers: Stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food or water.

Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Reinforcement Schedules: The frequency and timing of reinforcement.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement is provided after every correct response.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule: Reinforcement is provided only after some responses, not every time.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after a set period of time.

Variable-Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable period of time.

Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.

Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.

B.F. Skinner: Psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning and the development of the operant chamber.

Biofeedback: A technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes by providing real-time feedback.

Instinctive Drift: The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behaviors, making it difficult to condition certain behaviors.

Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not immediately demonstrated in behavior.

Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a problem’s solution without trial and error.

Albert Bandura: Psychologist known for his work on observational learning and social cognitive theory.

Observational Learning: Learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.

Modeling: The process of demonstrating behavior for others to imitate.

Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform that action.

Prosocial Behaviors: Positive, helping behaviors that benefit others.

Antisocial Behaviors: Negative, harmful behaviors that violate social norms or harm others.