English Grammar

independent clause

independent clause

Has a subject and verb. Can stand alone.

→ The cow eats hay.

dependent clause

Has a subject and verb. Cannot stand alone.

→ If the cow eats hay

subject

The person or thing that does the action.

→ John has become sickly thin.
(The subject is "John")

→ The doctor is looking at him strangely.
(The subject is "The doctor")

→ John and Mary put marbles up their noses.
(The subject is "John and Mary")

simple subject

A subject made up of only one person, place, thing or idea. It is usually only one word.

→ Timothy lost a tooth!
(The simple subject is "Timothy")

→ The boy lost a tooth!
(The simple subject is "boy")

→ President Obama lost a tooth!
(The simple subject is "President Obama")

complete subject

A subject made up of the simple subject and any modifiers.

→ Timothy lost a tooth!
(The complete subject is "Timothy")

→ The boy lost a tooth!
(The complete subject is "The boy")

→ The boy with the missing tooth is grinning.
(The complete subject is "The boy with the missing tooth")

compound subject

A subject made up of two or more people, places, things or ideas.

→ Either Jeff or that funny-looking girl is going to win the race.
(The compound subject is "Either Jeff or that funny-looking girl")

→ The boy with the missing tooth and the girl with the long hair are running away.
(The compound subject is "The boy with the missing tooth and the girl with the long hair")

predicate

The part of the clause or sentence that is not the subject. A predicate must have a verb. It may also have other modifiers.

→ He is a total marshmallow.
(The predicate is "is a total marshmallow")

→ The letter contained devastating news.
(The predicate is "contained devastating news")

verb

A word for an action or a state of being.

→ She considers herself lucky.
(The verb is "considers")

→ Stop skipping so quickly!
(The verb is "skipping")

→ I am happy.
(The verb is "am")

action verb

A verb for an activity.

→ jumps
→ runs
→ sleeps
→ avoids
→ listens
→ stops

stative verb

A verb for a state of being, a thought, or an emotion.

→ is / was / will be
→ thinks
→ feels
→ believes
→ likes

transitive verb

A verb that acts on something. It has a direct object (the person or thing that is being acted on).

→ I gave Sherlock the letter.
(The verb "gave" is transitive and the direct object is "the letter". Also, "Sherlock" is the indirect object.)

→ I ate all of the blueberry pie.
(The verb "ate" is transitive and the direct object is "all of the blueberry pie")

intransitive verb

A verb that does not act on something. It does not have an object.

→ The rain fell.
(The verb "fell" is intransitive)

→ Her little brother sneezed.
(The verb "sneezed" is intransitive)

auxiliary verb

A word added to the main verb to show tense, voice, or mood. It is also known as a "helping verb".

→ She has brought lunch.
(The auxiliary verb "has" helps to show tense. "Has brought" is a present perfect verb.)

→ The table has been set.
(The auxiliary verbs "has been" help to show passive voice.

→ If he were to arrive in ten minutes, then we would be on schedule.
(The auxiliary verbs "were" and "would" help to show the subjunctive mood.)

modal verb

A type of auxiliary verb that shows ability, possibility, permission, and obligation.

You can memorize them: can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would.

→ He can play tennis well.
(The modal verb "can" shows ability)

→ We might meet tomorrow.
(The modal verb "might" shows possibility)

→ You may leave now.
(The modal verb "may" shows permission)

→ You must not lie to us.
(The modal verb "must" shows obligation)

phrasal verb

A verb made up of a main verb and a preposition, adverb, or both. The phrasal verb usually has a meaning completely different to its main verb, which can confuse beginners.

→ I asked you to drop by after seven.
(The phrasal verb "drop by" means "visit")

→ She broke in to his apartment.
(The phrasal verb "broke in" means "entered illegally")

regular verb

A verb that adds -ed or -d to its base form to make A) simple past tense and B) its past participle.

→ talk - talked
→ recognize - recognized
→ look - looked

irregular verb

A verb that does not make A) simple past tense and B) its past participle by adding -ed or -d to its base form.

→ think - thought
→ steal - stole
→ is - was

infinitive verb

A verb in its basic form. It usually has the word "to" before it, but not always.

→ I want to run.
(The infinitive verb "to run" is not the main verb. "Want" is. The infinitive verb is being used as a noun.)

→ I need someone to take notes.
(The infinitive verb "to take" is not the main verb. "Need" is. The infinitive verb is being used as an adjective. It describes "someone". You could re-write the sentence as "I need someone that is prepared to take notes.")

→ The officer returned to offer assistance.
(The infinitive verb "to offer" is not the main verb. "Returned" is. The infinitive verb is being used as an adverb. It describes "returned". You could re-write the sentence as "The officer returned so he could help." In that sentence, "so he could offer assistance" is an adverbial clause. In our original sentence, "to offer assistance" does the same thing.

→ I must tell the truth.
(The infinitive verb "tell" is not the main verb. The "to" has been dropped because a modal verb comes before it. The modal verb "must" is the main verb.)

bare infinitive verb

An infinitive verb without the word "to" before it.

→ I must tell the truth.
(The bare infinitive verb "tell" is not the main verb. The "to" has been dropped because a modal verb comes before it. The modal verb "must" is the main verb.)

→ I watched them bake bread.
(The bare infinitive verb "bake" is not the main verb. The "to" has been dropped because it follows the main verb ("watched") and there is a direct object of the main verb ("them").

past tense verb

A verb that happened before now.

Regular form: V + -ed or -d

→ He ran behind the shed.
(The past tense verb is "ran")

→ They were all present.
(The past tense verb is "were")

present tense verb

A verb that shows a state of being or a habit.

→ She plays tennis.
(The present tense verb "plays" shows that tennis is something she does often. It is a habit.)

→ He is unhappy.
(The present tense verb "is" shows that his state of being is currently unhappiness.)

future tense verb

A verb that shows something that may happen in the future.

Form: will + V

→ She will play tennis.
(The future tense verb "will play" shows that tennis is something she will be doing sometime after now.)

direct object

The person or thing that verb acts on.

→ I sent the postcard to Dad.
(What did I send? The postcard. Therefore, "the postcard" is the direct object.)

→ She sang a song.
(What did she sing? A song. Therefore, "a song" is the direct object.)

indirect object

The person or thing for whom the action was done.

→ I sent the postcard to Dad.
(The indirect object is "Dad". He is the person I was sending the postcard to.)

→ I will bake him a cake.
(The indirect object is "him". He is the person I will bake a cake for.)

passive voice

A sentence has a passive voice when the action is done to the subject, not done by the subject.

→ The table was set.
(This sentence is passive because the table didn't do the setting. The act of setting was done to the table.)

→ Carl was arrested by Officer Williams.
(This sentence is passive because Carl didn't do the arresting. Officer Williams did. Carl is the subject of the verb "was".)

active voice

A sentence has an active voice when the subject does the action.

→ Carl arrested Officer Williams.
→ The table grew legs and started walking.

conjugation

Changing the verb so that it matches the subject. This must be memorized.

→ I - am
→ You - are
→ He - is
→ She - is
→ It - is
→ We - are
→ They - are

non-finite verb

A verb that is not showing tense. This category is made up of gerunds, infinitives, and participles.

→ Debating is an art form.
(The non-finite verb "debating" is a gerund.)

→ She needs to go home.
(The non-finite verb "to go" is an infinitive.)

→ We ate the toasted marshmallows.
(The non-finite verb "toasted" is a participle.)

participle

A verb that is used as an adjective. There are two types: present participle and past participle.

→ This is the house of the rising sun.
(The present participle "rising" is used to describe the noun "sun".)

→ That cooked ham looks dry.
(The past participle "cooked" is used to describe the noun "ham".)

adjective phrase

A group of words that describes a noun. There must be an adjective in an adjective phrase.

→ Sarah was fairly bored with the lesson.
(The adjective phrase "fairly bored with the lesson" describes Sarah. It uses the linking verb "is" to connect the subject to the predicate.)

→ The dog covered in mud looked pleased with himself.
(The adjective phrase "covered in mud" describes the dog. The adjective phrase "pleased with himself" also describes the dog, but it uses the linking verb "looked" to connect to the subject.)

attributive

When the phrase is inside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.

→ The beautifully carved frames are worth more than the paintings.
(The adjective phrase "The beautifully carved" is attributive because it is inside the noun phrase "The beautifully carved frames".)

predicative

When the phrase is outside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies. A predicative phrase is usually linked to the noun by a linking verb.

→ The frames were beautifully carved by monks.
(The adjective phrase "beautifully carved" is predicative because it is outside the noun phrase "The frames".)

participle phrase

An adjective phrase that starts with a participle.

→ You could see the wild thing gnashing its teeth.
(The participle phrase "gnashing its teeth" describes the wild thing. The word "gnashing" is a participle.)

→ Rising out of the see, the dragon's scales glimmered in the sunlight.
(The participle phrase "rising out of the sea" describes the dragon's scales. The word "rising" is a participle.)

misplaced modifier

A word, phrase, or clause that does not relate to what it was supposed to modify.

These types of errors can be fixed by moving the position of the modifier or rewording the sentence.

→ He only eats ice cream.
(He doesn't throw it? He doesn't roll in it? This is a common mistake. The correct sentence would be "He eats only ice cream." That way, "only" modifies the word "ice cream", not "eats".)

→ Yoona told us after the holiday that she wants to stop smoking.
(Did Yoona tell us this after the holiday? Or does she want to stop smoking after the holiday? It would be better to say "After the holiday, Yoona told us that she wants to stop smoking" or "Yoona told us that she wants to stop smoking after the holiday.")

→ Running quickly improves your health.
(Does running at a face pace improve health? Or does running improve your health quickly? This is a squinting modifier.)

→ Having read your letter, my dog will be taken to the vet.
(The dog didn't read the letter. Therefore, the correct sentence would read: "Having read your letter, I will take my dog to the vet." This is an example of a dangling modifier.)

dangling modifier

A type of misplaced modifier where there is nothing to modify.

→ Having read your letter, my dog will be taken to the vet.
(The dog didn't read the letter. Therefore, the correct sentence would read: "Having read your letter, I will take my dog to the vet.")

→ Meticulous and punctual, David's work ethic is admirable.
(David's work ethic is neither meticulous nor punctual; David is.)

squinting modifier

A type of misplaced modifier that could modify either the words before or the words after it. It can "look" left or right. If there is nothing to one of those sides, then it is a misplaced modifier.

→ Taking a moment to think clearly improves your chances.
(Are we "thinking clearly" or are we "clearly improving"?)

limiting modifier

A word that restricts the words it modifies.
A limiting modifier usually modifies the word immediately to its right. The most common limiting modifiers are: almost, hardly, nearly, just, only, merely.

→ Martin eats only pears.
→ Almost everyone is asleep.
→ Nearly four score and seven years ago, the constitution was ratified.

gerund

A verb that acts like a noun. Gerunds always end in -ing.

→ Swimming is my favorite past-time.
→ She doesn't like cooking.
→ You can tell much about one's character by one's way of eating jellybeans.

complement

The word or words needed to complete the meaning of an expression. Complements cannot be removed from a sentence without changing the meaning.

→ Martha is strong.
(Strong tells us something about Martha, a noun. So "strong" is a subject complement.)

→ The resolution made Jeff's position irrelevant.
(Irrelevant tells us something about Jeff's position, an object. So "irrelevant" is an object complement.)

→ The board cut Jeff's salary.
(Jeff's salary tells us something about the verb "cut". This makes "Jeff's salary" an object... and an object complement. Why it is not called a "verb complement", we'll never know.)

→ The board cut Jeff's salary.
(The board tells us something about the verb "cut". This makes "The board" a subject... and a subject complement. Why it is not called a "verb complement", we'll never know.)

linking verb

A verb that connects the subject to the predicate and does not show an action.

Linking verbs are usually one of the five senses or the verb "to be". Remember that they cannot have a direct object.

→ She smells like a gym class in July.
(The linking verb "smells" connects the subject pronoun "she" to the predicate "like a gym class in July".)

→ Siva's grandmother is a bartender.
(The linking verb "is" connects the subject "Siva's grandmother" to the predicate "a bartender".)

noun clause

A clause that acts like a noun.

→ I like what I see.
(The noun clause is "what I see")

→ I know that the tide is turning.
(The noun clause is "that the tide is turning")

sentence types

There are four sentence types. You can remember them by the acronym I-DIE.

Interrogative: asks a question. Ends in a question mark.
→ Where are you going?

Declarative: makes a statement. Ends in a period.
→ I am going to the doctor.

Imperative: gives a command. Can end in a period or an exclamation mark.
→ Do not touch the wall.

Exclamatory: says something with emotion. Ends in an exclamation mark.
→ Stop, thief!

sentence structures

There are four of them.

Complex: one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
→ When you are young, you are invincible.

Compound: two or more independent clauses.
→ You don't like me but I don't care.

Simple: only one independent clause.
→ Here's looking at you, kid.

Compound-Complex: at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
→ If a doctor has good bedside manner, he should receive a promotion, but if he instills the fear of God in his patients, he should be demoted.

run-on error

When two or more independent clauses are connected by only a comma.

To fix this, change the comma to a full stop, semicolon, dash, or ellipsis.

→ I didn't like Susan, she was always telling lies.
("I didn't like Susan; she was always telling lies," would fix this.)

object of preposition

The noun or pronoun the preposition is pointing to.

→ This is one small step for a man.
(The object of preposition is "man" since the preposition is "for". The word "a" is a modifier.)

→ Inside every cynical person is a disappointed idealist.
(The object of preposition is "person" since the preposition is "inside". The words "every cynical" are modifiers.)

adverbial clause

A clause that acts like an adverb. Adverbial clauses are adjuncts and are dependent.

→ Keep hitting the gong until I tell you to stop.
(The adverbial clause "until I tell you to stop" describes the verb "hitting". Therefore, it acts like an adverb.)

hierarchy of word units

The acronym to remember the hierarchy of word units is WPCSCC.

→ Word (e.g., Shark)
(A word is the smallest meaningful unit.)

→ Phrase (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark)
(A phrase is a single piece of information made up of more than one word. It will not contain a subject and a verb.)

→ Clause (e.g., When a seven-foot tiger shark arrived...)
(A clause is a single piece of information made up of more than one word which contains a subject and a verb.)

→ Sentence (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark arrived.)
(A sentence conveys a complete idea. It must contain at least one clause. Note: A clause that stands alone as a sentence is known as an independent clause.)

→ Complex Sentence (e.g., When a seven-foot tiger shark arrived, the crew stopped fishing.)
(A complex sentence is an independent clause supported by at least one other clause.)

→ Compound Sentence (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark arrived, and the crew stopped fishing.)
(A compound sentence is a sentence made up of at least two independent clauses.)

adjunct

A word, phrase, or clause that can be removed from a sentence without making it grammatically incorrect. An adjunct is usually an adverb used to modify a verb.

→ In the morning, we will leave for the countryside.
(The adjective phrase "in the morning" is an adjunct.)

→ She washes all of her dolls whenever Ollie washes his Legos.
(The adjective phrase "whenever Ollie washes his Legos" is an adjunct.)

adverb

A word that tells us more about a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

→ He ran quickly.
(The adverb "quickly" tells us more about the verb "ran")

→ He ran to the shop.
(The adverbial phrase "to the shop" tells us more about where he ran)

→ Stephanie finished her assignment remarkably quickly.
(The adverb "remarkably" tells us more about the adverb "quickly", which tells us more the verb "finished".)

possessive pronouns

These pronouns show ownership and do not modify nouns. They can be memorized: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.

→ This house is mine.
→ His is next door.

objective case

The case used for nouns and pronouns that are objects.

In English, only some pronouns change in the objective case. All nouns remain the same.

The accusative and dative cases encountered in other languages are one and the same in English: the objective case.

→ me
→ you
→ him
→ her
→ it
→ us
→ them
→ whom
→ whomever

adjective clause

A clause that modifies a noun. It usually comes after the noun.

Put commas around the adjective clause if the information not needed to figure out what the noun is.

→ The rat which you saw yesterday was infected.
(The adjective clause "which you saw yesterday" describes the rat.)

→ The rate you saw yesterday was infected.
(The adjective clause "you saw yesterday" describes the rat. Notice that the relative pronoun was deleted yet the sentence is still grammatical.)

→ My brother, who had sprained his ankle moments earlier, sprinted after the bus.
(The adjective phrase "who had sprained his ankle moments earlier" is not required to figure out who "my brother" is.)

affix

Letters added to the root of a word to change its meaning. If the letters are added before the root, they are called a prefix. If the letters are added after the root, they are called a suffix.

→ Homogenized - the prefix "homo" has been added
→ Incapable - the prefix "in" has been added
→ Laughing - the suffix "ing" has been added

alliteration

Repetition of the same first sound in a string of words.

→ Sally sells seashells by the seashore.
→ Bouncing babies bathe beside the boats.

consonance

Repetition of the same consonant sound in a string of words. Consonance is not restricted to the first sound like alliteration is.

→ She painted the think tank pink.
→ We are bound by a transcendent bond.

anagram

A word (or group of words) made up of the exact letters of another.

→ Elvis - lives
→ rescue - secure
→ eleven plus two - twelve plus one

analogy

A comparison of two things to show how they are similar. Two common types of analogy are similes and metaphors.

→ Life is like a box of chocolates; you never know what you're gonna get.

→ She's a total pig.

anaphora

Repeating words at the start of sentences.

→ We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.

→ The future's bright. The future's orange.

epiphora

Repeating words at the end of sentences.

→ She's safe, just like I promised. She's all set to marry Norrington, just like she promised. And you get to die for her, just like you promised.

commoratio

Repeating an idea over and over, using different words.

→ It's passed on! This parrot is no more! It has ceased to be! It's expired and gone to meet its maker! This is a late parrot! It's a stiff! Bereft of life, it rests in peace! If you hadn't nailed it to the perch, it would be pushing up the daisies! Its metabolical processes are of interest only to historians! It's hopped the twig! It's shuffled off this mortal coil! It's run down the curtain and joined the choir invisible! This is an ex-parrot!

→ We have considered your solution and are impressed by its practicality. It looks very viable. Very viable indeed.

anastrophe

Changing the normal word order.

→ Powerful you have become. The dark side I sense in you.

→ On a black cloak sparkle the stars.

antecedent

The word that the pronoun refers to.

→ Gail called to say she'll be late again.
(The antecedent is "Gail". The pronoun referring to her is "she".)

→ When you see him, please tell the professor I'm looking for him.
(The antecedent is "the professor", and the pronouns referring to him come both before and after it.)

appositive

A noun, noun phrase, or noun clause which sits next to another noun and renames or describes it.

→ Don't leave your shoes there or Ollie, my dog, will eat them.
(The appositive "my dog" renames "Ollie")

→ The beast, namely a large lion with a tangled mane, growled at him.
(The appositive "a large lion with a tangled mane" describes "the beast" and is introduced by the word "namely")

restrictive clause

A clause that is needed to identify the word it modifies. It can't be removed without changing the meaning. It is not written with commas around it.

Restrictive clauses usually begin with "which", "that", and "who".

→ The boy who broke the window is at the door.
(The restrictive clause "who broke the window" modifies "the boy". If we remove it, our reader / listener won't be sure of which boy we're referring to.

non-restrictive clause

A clause that is not needed to identify the word it modifies. It can be removed without changing the meaning. It is written with commas around it.

→ Peter Jones, the man who plays goalkeeper for our village's football team, has worked at this grocery store for 30 years.
(The non-restrictive clause "the man who plays goalkeeper for our village's football team" is not needed to identify Peter Jones.)

→ She had a pretty gift of quotation, which is a serviceable substitute for wit.
(The non-restrictive clause "which is a serviceable substitute for wit" is not needed to tell us about her gift of quotation.)

apposition

A sentence construction where a noun or noun phrase is place beside another to explain or define it. The noun or noun phrase that does the explaining is called the "appositive".

→ Don't leave your shoes there or Ollie, my dog, will eat them.
(The appositive "my dog" is in apposition.)

archaism

A word that is no longer used in English.

→ methinks - I think
→ wherefore - why
→ sooth - truth
→ anon - at once
→ aye - yes

article

In English, the words "a", "an", and "the" are the only articles. They show if something is specific or not.

Articles are a type of determiner.

determiner

A word that modifies a noun to show amount, ownership, specificity, or definiteness.

→ He has no dogs.
(The determiner "no" shows amount.)

→ He have five dogs.
(The determiner "five" shows amount.)

→ These are his dogs.
(The determiner "his" is a possessive adjective. It describe "dogs". It is not a pronoun. It shows ownership.)

→ I love those dogs!
(The determiner "those" is a demonstrative adjective. It shows specificity.)

→ I want a dog.
(The determiner "a" is an article. It shows definiteness.)

indefinite adjective

Tells us more about a noun in a non-specific way.

→ However many holy words you read, however many you speak, what good will they do to you if you do not act upon them?
(The first "many" is an indefinite adjective as it describes "holy words". The second "many" is an indefinite pronoun as it stands on its own.)

possessive adjective

A word that tells us who owns the noun.

You can memorize them: my, your, his, her, its, their, our, whose.

→ That is her dog.
(The possessive adjective "her" shows us it is she who owns the dog. Do note that if we mentioned the girl's name earlier, this "her" would also be considered a pronoun since it takes the place of the girl's name.)

demonstrative adjective

A word that points out a specific thing or things. It also describes a noun.

You can memorize them: this, that, these, those.

→ These pencils are hers.
(The demonstrative adjective "these" refers to the pencils.)

→ That dog is dirty!
(The demonstrative adjective "that" refers to the dog.)

demonstrative pronoun

A word that points out a specific thing or things. It takes the place of a noun.

You can memorize them: this, that, these, those.

→ These are hers.
(The demonstrative adjective "these" does not describe a noun. It takes the place of it.)

→ That is dirty!
(The demonstrative adjective "that" does not describe a noun.)

aspect

The part of a verb that tells us if the action is still going on or if it has finished.

There are four aspects: simple (AKA indefinite), perfect (AKA complete), progressive (AKA continuous), and perfect progressive.

→ He took the photos.
(simple aspect - no emphasis of completed or on-going action)

→ He had taken the photos by the time the owner arrived.
(perfect aspect - action completed)

→ He was taking the photos when the owner arrived.
(progressive aspect - action on going)

→ He had been taking the photos before the owner arrived.
(perfect progressive aspect - action on going but then finished)

These sentences are all in the past tense, but they all have a different aspect. Remember, we need aspect to tell us whether the action was on-going or completed.

assonance

Repeating the same vowel sound in a string of words.

→ The cat in the hat sat on a bat.
→ I keep my eye on the prize.
→ Love lunges from the heart.

helping verb

A verb that is next to the main verb, telling us about its tense, mood, or voice.

→ She will have gone home by then.
(The helping verbs "will have" show the tense)

→ If he should arrive, tell him to leave.
(The helping verb "should" shows mood)

→ The dessert has been eaten by the dog.
(The helping verbs "has been" show voice. This is a passive sentence.)

verb phrase

The main verb plus its helping verbs.

→ The mad king will kill us all.
(The verb phase is the main verb ("kill") and its helping verb ("will").)

base form

The simplest form of the verb. It is the form found in the dictionary. It is the same as the infinitive form, but the word "to" has been removed.

→ jump
→ think
→ be

case

This shows a noun's or pronoun's relationship to the other words in the sentence. There are only four cases in Modern English: subjective, objective, possessive, and vocative.

The noun doesn't change in any of them, other than getting 's in the possessive form.

The pronoun doesn't have a vocative case. Otherwise, it usually changes in the other three cases.

subjective case

The case for a noun or pronoun when it is the subject.

possessive case

The case for a noun or pronoun when it shows that it owns something.

vocative case

The case for a noun when it is being directly talked to. The noun doesn't change from its regular form. It should have commas around it.

→ Paul, is this yours?
("Paul" is in the vocative case)

coordinate conjunction

A conjunction that joins two or more like with like. For example, adjective with adjectives, nouns with nouns, phrases with phrases, etc.

You can memorize them: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Use the acronym FANBOYS.

→ The waiters served sandwiches and cakes.
(joins two nouns)

→ The manager, his deputy, or his secretary will be with you in a moment.
(joins three nouns)

→ He is a small but aggressive dog.
(joins two adjectives)

→ He typed the letter quickly but accurately.
(joins two adverbs)

→ She must be able to sing and dance.
(joins two verbs)

→ She must be able to sing like a rock star, and dance like a ballerina.
(joins two phrases)

→ She must be able to sing, and she must be able to dance.
(joins two clauses)

colloquialism

A familiar expression used mostly in informal speech. This includes (but is not limited to) contractions, slang, and profanity.

slang

Words or phrases that are very informal and often used only in a special context or by a certain social group.

→ groovy (great)
→ sweet (nice)
→ sick (nice)
→ Mary Jane (marijuana)

idiom

A commonly-used expression whose surface meaning does not relate to its actual meaning.

→ She's pushing up daisies.
(She's dead)

→ Cat got your tongue?
(What's the matter? Why aren't you speaking?)

→ She's got a bun in the oven.
(She's pregnant)

colon

A punctuation mark used in ratios, times, titles, quotes, to expand an idea, and to introduce something.

→ His influence is obvious in two buildings: the local church and pavilion.
(In this example, the local church and pavilion is the appositive of two buildings.)

→ The following were fired: Tom, Jim, Suresh, and Yue Ming.
(The colon is used to introduce the names)

comma

Used to separate parts of sentences:

• After setting the scene in the beginning of the sentence
• After transitions
• After an interjection
• Before a conjunction joining two independent clauses
• Instead of parentheses
• To separate list items
• In numbers
• Around the vocative case
• Before a quotation

compound adjective

A single adjective made up of more than one word. It is usually hyphenated.

→ She needs a three-by-four plank.
(The compound adjective is "three-by-four")

→ Did you go to the Harry Potter theme park?
(The compound adjective is "Harry Potter")

→ Is this your bona fide residence?
(The compound adjective is "bona fide")

compound predicate

A predicate that tells us two or more things about the same subject, without repeating the subject.

→ Joel lives in Singapore but works in Malaysia.
(The compound predicate "lives in Singapore but works in Malaysia" tells us two different things about Joel.)

→ Jeff and his brother are fans of Liverpool and often attend its matches.
(The compound predicate "are fans of Liverpool and often attend its matches" tells us two different things about Jeff and his brother.)

compound verb

A verb made up of more than one word.

Prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs, verbs with helping verbs, and compound single-word verbs make up this category.

conditional sentences

Sentences made up of two halves, where one half begins with the word "if" and the other half states what would have / will happen if the first half became true.

There are four types of conditional sentences.

Zero-conditional: state facts. If you don't do X, Y will definitely happen.

First-conditional: state that the outcome is likely, but not guaranteed, to happen in the future. If you X, then Y will probably happen.

Second-conditional: state the the outcome is unrealistic or not going to happen in the future. It's never going to happen, but if X, then Y.

Third-conditional: used to tell us how the present situation would be different if the past had gone a certain way. If you had X, then Y.

Remember that a comma is only needed if the if-clause comes before the other clause.

conjunctive adverb / transitional phrase

An adverb that acts like a conjunction.

It joins two sentences or independent clauses and shows how the two are related.

Because they give a smooth transition between sentences and clauses, they are also known as transitional phrases

Commas do not come before conjunctive adverbs; they come after.

→ You failed to meet the deadline; therefore, the deal is off.
→ You failed to meet the deadline. Therefore, the deal is off.
→ as a result
→ as a consequence
→ for example
→ on the contrary

connotation

A further understanding of the word's meaning.

The denotations of the words difficult and challenging are similar. However, their connotations are very different.

→ Difficult (negative connotation)
(This suggests there are problems ahead.)

→ Challenging (positive connotation)
(This suggests the problems ahead will be overcome.)

denotation

The basic meaning of a word. This is the meaning you will find in a dictionary.

acronym

An abbreviation spoken like a word.

→ EDNOS
→ NASA

correlative conjunctions

Pairs of conjunctions that link two equal things in a sentence.

→ I am removing not only your gun but also your permit.
(The equivalent elements being linked are your gun and your permit. They are both noun phrases.)

→ It was neither clever nor funny.
(The equivalent elements being linked are clever and funny . They are both adjectives.)

→ Either go home or shut up.
(The equivalent elements being linked are go home and shut up. They are both imperative verbs.)

en dash

Used in a number range or in a compound noun of two equal things.

→ 12 - 14 eggs
→ Johnson-Paktor case

em dash

Used in place of a colon, semicolon, ellipsis, and parenthesis; and when crediting a quotation.

dash

Used in compound nouns or compound adjectives.