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Price of Bread
The cost of bread, essential for most Europeans, impacting daily life and sparking riots during economic crises.
Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648)
A devastating conflict mainly between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, resulting in widespread destruction.
Peace of Augsburg (1555)
An agreement allowing German princes to select Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their territories.
Gustavus Adolphus
King of Sweden who supported Protestants during the Thirty Years' War and won several key battles.
Cardinal Richelieu
Chief minister to King Louis XIII, strengthened the French monarchy and opposed the Habsburgs during the Thirty Years' War.
Peace of Westphalia (1648)
The treaty that ended the Thirty Years' War, recognizing state sovereignty and reducing religious conflicts.
Standing Armies
Permanent military forces maintained by states, common for defense and enforcement of power.
Great Britain Focused on Naval Forces
Britain's concentration on building a strong navy crucial for its imperial expansion.
Henry IV (1589)
King of France who ended civil wars between Catholics and Protestants and enacted the Edict of Nantes.
Edict of Nantes (1598)
A decree granting religious freedom to Huguenots in France, revoked by Louis XIV in 1685.
Cardinal Richelieu
Influential minister to Louis XIII; strengthened royal power and centralized the state in France.
Intendants
Royal officials in France implementing government policies locally, increasing the monarchy's power.
Louis XIV
French king known as the 'Sun King,' symbolizing absolute monarchy and expanding French territories.
Cardinal Jules Mazarin
Successor to Richelieu, chief minister during Louis XIV's early reign, continued centralizing policies.
Fronde
A series of civil wars in France (1648–1653) stemming from royal tax increases and noble resistance.
Revoked the Edict of Nantes (1685)
Louis XIV's action to remove religious tolerance, leading to Huguenot exile.
Versailles
A grand palace under Louis XIV, center of political power, showcasing the monarchy's wealth.
Required Nobles
Louis XIV mandated nobles to spend time at Versailles to control their activities.
Patron
Someone who supports the arts; Louis XIV commissioned works to glorify his reign and French culture.
French Classicism
An artistic and literary style in the late 17th century emphasizing harmony and classical models.
French Language in Society
The rise of French as the preferred medium for diplomacy and culture across Europe.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Louis XIV's financial advisor who created mercantilist policies to strengthen the French economy.
Financial Genius
Colbert’s effectiveness in managing finances and enhancing state revenue through economic control.
Mercantilism
Economic theory emphasizing state management of the economy to increase national wealth.
Spanish King Charles II
The last Habsburg ruler of Spain whose death without an heir led to the War of the Spanish Succession.
War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713)
Conflict over the Spanish throne, involving France against a coalition of European powers.
The Peace of Utrecht
The treaty concluding the War of the Spanish Succession, ensuring separate French and Spanish crowns.
Balance-of-Power Principle
The idea that European powers should maintain equal strength to prevent any nation from dominating.
Decline of Absolutist Spain
Spain's loss of power due to economic troubles and military defeats in the seventeenth century.
Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
Agreement ending hostilities between France and Spain, resulting in significant territorial losses for Spain.
Independence of Portugal (1688)
Spain formally recognized Portugal's sovereignty, ending its dominance in the region.
Habsburgs
A powerful royal family aimed at unifying diverse territories in central Europe post-Thirty Years' War.
Permanent standing army
A military force maintained during peacetime, ready to suppress internal conflicts.
Frederick William
The ‘Great Elector’ of Brandenburg and Prussia, known for building a strong military.
Great Elector
Title for Frederick William reflecting his leadership in consolidating power in Prussia.
Junkers
The noble landowning class in Prussia wielding significant political and economic power.
Frederick William I
The 'Soldiers’ King' known for strengthening Prussia’s military and centralizing power.
Militaristic society
A society dominated by military values, emphasizing discipline and readiness for war.
Moscow as the 'Third Rome'
Moscow viewed as the successor to Rome and Byzantium in Orthodoxy and power.
Ivan IV (r. 1533–1584)
Also known as 'Ivan the Terrible,' expanded Russia and established a centralized government.
Cossacks
Free groups and warrior bands in Russia resisting nobles and seeking freedom.
Ivan's Peasant Ties
Ivan IV enacted laws requiring peasants to remain bound to the land they worked.
Time of Troubles (1598–1613)
A chaotic period after Ivan IV's death marked by power struggles and suffering.
Romanov
Dynasty beginning with Michael Romanov, ruling Russia for over three centuries.
Hereditary tsar
A king whose position is passed down through family lines.
Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725)
Russian tsar known for modernizing Russia and expanding its army.
European Great Power
A major country with significant military strength and influence in international affairs.
St. Petersburg
A city founded by Peter the Great as Russia’s new capital reflecting Western culture.
Westernization
The process of adopting Western ideas and practices, exemplified by Peter the Great.
Serfdom
System binding peasants to land controlled by landowners, often for protection.
Mid-sixteenth century
Refers to the 1550s, a time of Ottoman Empire prominence.
Most powerful empires
Empires like the Ottoman Empire notable for control, wealth, and military strength.
James Stuart / James I
The Scottish cousin of Queen Elizabeth I who became king of England in 1603.
Divine right
Belief that a monarch’s authority comes directly from God, accountable only to Him.
Charles I
Son of James I who ruled from 1625 to 1649 and attempted to govern without Parliament.
Long Parliament
Parliament sitting from 1640 to 1660 aiming to limit the king's powers.
Triennial Act
1641 law requiring the king to summon Parliament at least once every three years.
English Civil War (1642–1649)
Conflict between Charles I's supporters and Parliament, ending in victory for Parliament.
Oliver Cromwell
Leader of the Parliamentary army during the English Civil War who became a military dictator.
Beheaded
Executing someone by cutting off their head; Charles I was executed this way.
Thomas Hobbes
Philosopher who argued that strong central authority is necessary to avoid chaos.
Navigation Act (1651)
Law requiring goods shipped to England to use English ships, promoting English trade.
Restoration of 1660
Charles II's return after Cromwell's republican rule, restoring the monarchy.
Charles II
Son of Charles I who ruled from 1660 to 1685, restoring stability to England.
Test Act (1673)
Law limiting civil rights for non-Church of England members.
James II
Brother of Charles II, became king in 1685, promoting Catholicism and causing unrest.
Mary and William of Orange
Invited to the English throne to prevent the return of Catholic absolutism.
1689
Year Mary and William were crowned, beginning constitutional monarchy in England.
Glorious Revolution (1688–1689)
Bloodless transition of power from James II to William and Mary, limiting royal authority.
Bill of Rights
Document ensuring parliamentary supremacy and limiting the monarchy's power.
Second Treatise of Civil Government
John Locke's work arguing that governments must protect people's natural rights.
John Locke
Political philosopher advocating for natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
Cabinet system
Government form where leading ministers collaborate with Parliament on policies.
Prime minister
Head of the cabinet in England, originally called the king's first minister.
Republic of the United Provinces
Self-governing territory recognized for its independence in 1648.
Stadholder
Executive officer in each province of the Dutch Republic responsible for defense.
Shipping business
Industry involving sea transportation, dominated by the Dutch in the 17th century.
Highest standard of living
Economically prosperous condition enjoyed by the Dutch due to successful trade.
Baroque style
Artistic style of the 17th century characterized by drama and emotional intensity.
Peter Paul Rubens
Prominent Baroque painter known for dynamic and colorful works.
Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach, celebrated Baroque composer known for complex and expressive music.
