1- Research Methodology Questions

1A) Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.

4 types of research method:

-experiment

-observational studies

-case studies

-interviews

-surveys/questionnaires.

-correlational Studies.

D: definition

+: advantages

-: disadvantages

field experiment

D: Experiment done in naturalistic conditions (the researcher is still able to manipulate the independent variable).

Tests the effect of independent variable on dependent variable!

+better ecological validity (natural environment), can still establish causation

-more susceptible to extraneous variables

natural experiment

D: Researchers investigate the effects of a naturally occurring independent variable on a dependent variable

Tests the effect of independent variable on dependent variable!

+very strong ecological validity

-extremely difficult/impossible to replicate

-may be too highly specific for generalizability

-difficult to establish causation (but only correlation)

quasi-experiment

D: Experiment where independent variable cannot be controlled (e.g. age, gender)

Tests the effect of independent variable on dependent variable!

-random allocation is not possible

case studies

D: In-depth observation of a human experience (a 'case') through multiple methods

+focuses on a single group over a long period of time in order to gather a large amount of rich and in depth data.

+use method triangulation - that is, more than one research method is used as part of the investigation.

+useful for studying sensitive & unique issues (e.g. poverty, health, domestic violence), may generate entirely new knowledge & challenge existing theories

-cost & time intensive

-susceptible to R bias & S effects due to long periods both spend together

-generalization not always possible

covert observational studies

D: Observation where participants are not aware they're being observed.

Carried out as an 'outsider' for the group w/ little-no interaction btw group & R

+Ss's natural behavior preserved, free of influence of observation

+influence of R minimized

-following ethical guidelines difficult; informed consent/use of data must be obtained after fact

-R bias may be pronounced as S input & interpretations will not be included as much

semi- structured interviews

D: A form of interview that uses both open and closed questions.

+led by the interviewer (can ensure time)

+allows data to be compared and collated across participants and the collection of rich data

+flexibility present in what to ask, open- & closed-ended questions used, informal & conversational (usually one-on-one, face-to-face)

+allows Ss to elaborate on answers & for detailed knowledge to be obtained, better for addressing sensitive/private issues (private environment)

surveys/questionnaires

D: A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of a survey or statistical study.

+researcher does not need to be present as answers can be mailed so respondent has time to consider answers.

-if researcher is present then this may affect answers -- researcher effect

-postal surveys may have low response rate

correlational studies

D: Research that simply measures the association between variables, without actively manipulating (changing) any of the variables.

+doesn't require the changing of independent variables

-cannot establish causation relationship

longitudinal studies

D: An observational and correlational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.

+researchers can look at how certain things may change at different points in life and explore some of the reasons why these developmental shifts take place

-these studies often have only a small group of subjects, (because expensive) which makes it difficult to apply the results to a larger population

-participants sometimes drop out of the study, shrinking the sample size and decreasing the amount of data collected

overt observational studies

D: Observation where participants are aware that they're being observed.

Carried out as an 'outsider' for the group w/ little-no interaction btw group & R

+informed consent easy to obtain, ethical guidelines strongly followed

-susceptible to reactivity/demand characteristics

-R bias may be pronounced as S input & interpretations will not be included as much

true experiment

D: Experiment conducted in controlled environment designed to test a hypothesis that involves at least 2 conditions

Tests the effect of independent variable on dependent variable!

+random allocation is possible

+can establish a cause-effect relationship between manipulation of the IV and its effect on the DV because extraneous variables is controlled

-artificiality: vulnerable to participant demand characteristics

structured interviews

D: Interview that asks Ss fixed list of questions asked in a specific order.

+allows for standardization of procedure & comparison btw observers

-doesn't accommodate for individual circumstances/characteristics of Ss

naturalistic observations

D: Observation of situations where behaviors naturally occur without outside influence (i.e. no R manipulation)

+tend to have high ecological validity—takes place in natural environment, assumed Ss behave as they usually do

+can be used to collect data in cases where otherwise impossible/unethical (e.g. Alzheimer's patients)

-risk that Ss may react to being observed (if overt), thus reactivity

-poor control over behavior & factors affecting behavior, behavior of interest may not even occur during observation

laboratory observations

D: R manipulates IV directly causing S's behavior to change (from an outside influence) (NOTE: can be conducted in lab or natural setting)

+strong control over extraneous variables, environment; behavior likely to occur

+can determine causation through isolation & manipulation of IV

-tend to have lower ecological validity; behaviors may be unnatural

-some topics/behaviors difficult to study in lab w/ observation (e.g. altruism)

participant observations

D: Observational and carried out within-group where R becomes participating member

+provides detailed & in-depth knowledge of topic which can't be gained by other methods

+best way to avoid R bias bc Rs seek to understand how & why social processes are the way they are (vs imposing own reality)

+provides holistic interpretation of topic as views of group integrated deeply in observation (1st person acct)

-difficult to record data promptly & in organized/structured way

-time consuming & demanding—becoming member of group takes time & commitment

-risk that R loses objectivity, adopting group norms/values

-R's involvement may change Ss behavior in unnatural ways

-problems with ethical considerations

structured observations

D: Observations recorded in systematic & standardized way, e.g. using checklists of behavior, frequency of specific pre-determined behaviors recorded

+stronger reliability btw repeated measures & raters/observers

+quantitative data: easy to process & analyze

-may limit range of behaviors receiving attention; may miss relevant behaviors

-creating checklist reliant on expectations/prior knowledge of researcher

unstructured observations

D: R records any 'noteworthy' behavior, often descriptions of behavior vs quantitative data.

+open-ended structure can capture all possible behaviors; suitable for exploratory/initial investigation into new topics & behaviors

-may have poor inter-rater reliability, inconsistent observations btw repeated observations

-susceptible to R biases (e.g. attentional biases, confirmation bias, etc.)

-extremely time-consuming in processing & data analysis

focus groups

D: variant of semi-structured interview exploring group's understanding of issue

+Ss interact with each other as if in real life, discussing & responding to each other;

+facilitator present who introduces everyone, establishes tone, asks questions, & leads interactions

+allows collection of rich, dynamic data from group to be collected quickly in a more natural setting

-Ss may be susceptible to group dynamics (conformity) & not want to reveal private info

unstructured interviews

D: Individual interviews where Ss take more of a leading role in ('driving') the interview.

+questions mostly determined ad-hoc by S's responses w/ minimal interviewer influence.

+useful for gaining in-depth understanding of situations' meaning in Ss' own words

-time consuming to analyze (extremely rich data; some might be irrelevant)

-ethical concerns in asking about traumatic experiences

1B) Describe the sampling method used in the study.

.

random sampling

D: randomly selecting members of population (each member has equal chance of being part of sample)

stratified sampling

splitting a group/population into its sub-groups, then randomly sampling Ss from specific categories ('strata') of population to form sample

cluster

randomly selecting Ss from a subset of the larger population to represent the larger population.

purposive sampling

researchers find participants because they have specific characteristics that are suitable for studying

quota sampling

splitting a group/population into its sub-groups, then selecting Ss from those sub-groups to best fit the population and/or needs of the experiment

snowball sampling

using existing Ss to help recruit additional Ss through own social networks

convenience sampling

choosing Ss who are easily available to Rs for study (e.g. Psych undergrads)