Midterm Exam Study Guide

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering major concepts, theories, research methods, and cultural processes introduced in the lecture notes on introductory sociology.

Sociology

Systematic, scientific study of social behavior and human society, emphasizing patterns rather than individual cases.

Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills’s idea of linking personal troubles to larger social issues and historical forces.

Culture

The entire learned and shared way of life of a group, including material objects and symbolic meanings.

Social Structure

Patterned relationships and institutions that organize society and guide interaction.

Comparative Orientation

Research approach that explains social change by comparing past and present societies.

Macro-Sociology

Analysis of large-scale social phenomena such as class, race, and institutions.

Micro-Sociology

Study of day-to-day face-to-face interaction and small-group dynamics.

Structural Functionalism

Theory viewing society as a system whose interdependent parts work together for stability and equilibrium.

Function (sociological)

The contribution a social institution or practice makes to social stability.

Social Integration

Degree of social cohesion, shared values, and community ties among members of a society.

Conflict Theory

Perspective that sees society as arenas of inequality and power struggle over scarce resources.

Bourgeoisie

Marx’s term for owners of the means of production who hold dominant economic power.

Proletariat

Marx’s term for workers who sell their labor and are exploited by capitalists.

False Consciousness

Misguided belief among the oppressed that the existing social arrangement benefits everyone equally.

Rationalization

Weber’s concept of increasing reliance on efficiency, calculation, and control through bureaucracy.

Symbolic Interactionism

Micro-level theory that society is created and maintained through repeated meaning-making interactions.

Dramaturgy

Goffman’s view that social life resembles theatrical performance with roles, scripts, and stages.

Feminist Theory

Framework that examines gender as a primary source of power and inequality in society.

Postmodernism

Perspective rejecting universal truths, emphasizing fragmented, contextual, and constructed realities.

Quantitative Research

Sociological inquiry that collects and analyzes numerical data to test hypotheses.

Qualitative Research

Research that captures rich, descriptive detail through methods like interviews and observation.

Hypothesis

Testable statement predicting a relationship between variables in a study.

Operationalization

Process of defining abstract concepts in measurable, observable terms.

Correlation

Statistical association in which two variables change together.

Causation

Situation where one variable directly produces a change in another variable.

ASA Code of Ethics

Professional guidelines requiring informed consent, confidentiality, and protection of research participants.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Committee that reviews and approves research to safeguard ethical standards and participant welfare.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own, often leading to bias.

Cultural Relativism

Understanding a culture by its own values before making judgments.

Material Culture

Physical objects and technological artifacts created by a society.

Symbolic Culture

Intangible ideas, beliefs, values, and norms shared by a group.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Proposal that language structures how people perceive and think about the world.

Values

Deeply held beliefs about what is desirable, good, or important in a culture.

Norms

Rules and expectations guiding behavior within a society.

Folkways

Casual norms whose violations evoke mild reactions, e.g., table manners.

Mores

Morally significant norms; breaking them elicits strong condemnation (e.g., honesty).

Taboos

Prohibitions of acts considered extremely offensive or unthinkable (e.g., incest).

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to norms.

Social Control

Mechanisms societies use to encourage conformity and discourage deviance.

Multiculturalism

Perspective that values and encourages the coexistence of diverse cultural traditions.

Dominant Culture

Cultural practices and values held by the group with the most power and influence.

Subculture

Group within society with distinct norms and values existing alongside the dominant culture.

Counterculture

Subculture that actively rejects and opposes dominant cultural norms and values.

Cultural Diffusion

Spread of cultural elements from one group to another.

Cultural Leveling

Process by which distinct cultures become increasingly similar.

Cultural Imperialism

Imposition of one culture’s beliefs and practices on another through media or economic power.

Cultural Change

Evolution of cultural elements over time via innovation, diffusion, or conflict.

Socialization

Lifelong process through which individuals learn culture and develop a sense of self.

Primary Socialization

Initial learning of language, norms, and values, usually within the family.

Secondary Socialization

Social learning that occurs in later childhood and adulthood through broader institutions.

Social Reproduction

Transmission of culture, norms, and social status across generations.

Looking-Glass Self

Cooley’s concept that we form self-image by imagining how others perceive us.

Generalized Other

Mead’s term for the internalized sense of society’s overall expectations.

Resocialization

Process of replacing old norms and values with new ones, often in a new role or setting.

Hidden Curriculum

Unstated lessons schools teach, such as discipline and punctuality.

Gender Socialization

Learning cultural expectations and norms associated with one’s gender.

Life-Course Perspective

Approach emphasizing that socialization continues and changes across all life stages.

Microsociology

Focus on small-scale, everyday social interaction and meaning construction.

Non-Verbal Communication

Transmission of meaning through facial expressions, gestures, posture, and other wordless cues.

Impression Management

Efforts to control how others perceive us in social interactions.

Front Stage

Social region where a person performs a public role for an audience.

Back Stage

Private area where individuals can relax and drop their public personas.

Status

Recognized social position an individual occupies within a group or society.

Role

Set of behaviors expected of someone who occupies a particular status.

Ascribed Status

Position assigned at birth, such as race or sex, beyond individual control.

Achieved Status

Social position gained through personal effort, choice, or accomplishment.

Master Status

Status that dominates others and shapes a person’s overall social identity.

Role Conflict

Tension caused by competing demands of two or more statuses held by the same person.

Role Strain

Difficulty meeting multiple expectations within a single status.

In-Group

Group toward which a person feels loyalty and belonging.

Out-Group

Group perceived as different or opposed to one’s own in-group.

Reference Group

Group used as a standard for self-evaluation and decision making.

Groupthink

Tendency for cohesive groups to make faulty decisions due to pressure to conform.

Bureaucracy

Formal organization characterized by hierarchy, rules, and impersonal relationships (Weber).

McDonaldization

Ritzer’s concept describing the spread of fast-food principles—efficiency, predictability, control—through society.

Iron Cage

Weber’s metaphor for being trapped in dehumanizing, rationalized bureaucratic structures.

Deviance

Behavior, trait, or belief that violates social norms and provokes negative reaction.

Labeling Theory

Idea that deviance is created and sustained by societal reactions and labels.

Stigma

Discrediting attribute that spoils an individual’s social identity (Goffman).

Strain Theory

Merton’s explanation that deviance results when societal goals exceed the means available to achieve them.

Positive Deviance

Rule-breaking behavior that results in beneficial social change (e.g., civil disobedience).

Deterrence (Punishment)

Goal of punishment aimed at discouraging future offenses through fear of consequences.

Rehabilitation (Punishment)

Correctional approach focused on reforming offenders to reenter society successfully.

Incapacitation (Punishment)

Strategy of removing offenders from society to prevent further harm.

Retribution (Punishment)

Punishment philosophy seeking proportionate revenge or justice for wrongdoing.

Body Modification

Intentional alteration of the human body for cultural, aesthetic, or personal reasons.

Proxemics

Study of how humans use personal space to communicate (Edward T. Hall).

Human Agency

Capacity of individuals to act independently, make choices, and enact social change.