Theme 1: Arguments for the existence of God - inductive

What is an inductive argument?

An argument based on evidence gathered from experience/observations, that reaches a probable conclusion.

What is an a posteriori statement?

On the basis of experience, observation and empirical evidence.

What is the cosmological argument?

Argument for the existence of God that God’s creativity is the best explanation for the existence of the universe.

Who is the scholar associated with the cosmological argument, and which book?

Thomas Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologica’

Who was Summa Theologica written for?

For Christians, rather than having the intention of converting others.

Which three Ways are cosmological arguments?

• First Way - argument from motion

• Second Way - argument from causation

• Third Way - argument from contingency

Explain the argument from motion

• Everything in the world is in a constant state of motion or change.

• Change of state is movement from potentiality to actuality.

• Chain of movement can’t be traced back infinitely with no beginning.

• Must be a ‘first mover’ that initiated this chain - God.

Give a quote from Aquinas about the argument from motion

“Therefore it is necessary to arrive at a first mover; put in motion by no other; and this everyone understands to be God.”

Explain the argument from causation

• Every effect must have a cause, some activity that brought it about (efficient cause).

• We cannot trace this chain back infinitely, cannot be infinite regress.

• If there was never a beginning, there would be nothing to start the process, and therefore nothing would exist.

• Must be an ‘uncaused causer’ - God.

Give a quote from Aquinas about the argument from causation

“Therefore it is necessary to admit to a first efficient cause, to which everyone gives the name God.”

Explain the argument from contingency

• We can observe things in nature that come into existence and stop existing.

• They are contingent - dependent on something else to exist.

• There could have been a time when nothing existed, so nothing to bring contingent beings into existence.

• Must be a necessary being that does not depend on anything else to exist - God.

What is the Kalam cosmological argument and where does it originate from?

A form of the cosmological argument from Muslim culture, focuses on the idea that the universe must have had a temporal beginning. Originated from 12th century thinker Al-Ghazali.

Who developed the Kalam argument in the 20th century?

American philosopher William Lane Craig

What is the difference between potential infinite and actual infinite?

• Potential infinite is a useful mathematical concept, used as a number but means goes on forever.

• Actual infinite cannot exist and is absurd because it can never be reached. E.g. you can’t count to infinity.

What is Craig’s library analogy?

• Imagine a library with only red books and black books.

• Infinite number of red books and infinite number of black books.

• This would mean the number of red books + number of black books = infinity.

• But how can number of red books = number of red + black books?

• Proves absurdity of actual infinity.

What does Craig conclude from the library analogy?

If actual infinity is impossible, universe must have a temporal beginning, and therefore a cause. The most likely cause is God.

Give a quote from Craig summarising his argument

“If the universe began to exist, and the universe is caused, then the cause of the universe must be a personal being who freely chooses to create the world.”

What is Hume’s problem of induction?

When we use inductive reasoning, we make an assumption that the future will resemble the past, but there is no guarantee of that

What are Hume’s challenges to the cosmological argument?

• Cause and effect is an assumption not a certainty (due to the problem of inductive) and is a shaky basis.

• Fallacy of composition - just because everything in the universe has a cause, doesn’t mean the whole universe has a cause. (Betrand Russell made the same point.)

What is a scientific challenge to the cosmological argument?

The Big Bang theory - before there was nothing and suddenly there was. Strong empirical evidence to support it and this provides a reasonable explanation for the beginning of the universe.

Give three strengths of the cosmological argument

• Could be compatible with the Big Bang - supports idea the universe had a beginning.

• Based on solid, observable evidence.

• Occam’s razor - God is the simplest explanation for why the universe began to exist, which science can’t answer.

What is the teleological argument?

Looks at the order and purpose in the natural world and use inductive reasoning to conclude that the best explanation for this is God.

Which three scholars do we associate with the teleological argument, and name their books

• Thomas Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologica’

• William Paley, ‘Natural Theology’

• F.R. Tennant, ‘Philosophical Theology’

Give a quote about the effectiveness of the teleological argument

“This proof always deserves to be mentioned with respect.” -Kant

What is Aquinas’ Fifth Way?

• Nature seems to have an order and purpose to it.

• Nothing inanimate is purposeful without a “guiding hand”.

• E.g. a river cannot decide to flow, and yet it does.

• This is not chance, they were designed this way with a purpose.

• Best explanation for this is God.

What is Aquinas’ archer analogy?

If we see an arrow flying towards a target, we know someone must have fired it with the intention of hitting that target. In the same way, when we see inanimate objects acting with purpose, we know the guiding hand of God is behind it.

Explain Paley’s watchmaker analogy

• Person finds a watch and notes its complexity and how well it is put together to tell time.

• Concludes someone must have designed ad made the watch.

• Compares this to order of the universe, e.g. human body or planets.

• Concludes that the universe must also have a designer.

• This designer is God.

Give a quote from Paley about the complexity of the universe

“The contrivances of nature surpass the contrivances of art, in the complexity, subtlety, and curiosity of the mechanism.”

What is design qua purpose and design qua regularity?

• Design qua purpose - Everything in the universe has been designed to fulfil a purpose.

• Design qua regularity - The universe and everything in it works with an ordered regularity.

Explain Tennant’s anthropic principle

• The world has been designed so it is perfect for human life.

• If balances of gases were different, or distance from the sun, or laws of gravity, life wouldn’t be able to flourish.

• Chances of this being so are incredibly slim, and yet here we are.

• The best explanation for this is that the world was prepared for human life by God.

Explain Tennant’s aesthetic principle

• Humans have a distinct ability to appreciate beauty in the world.

• This is not part of the evolutionary process nor is it necessary for survival.

• No reason for it to be there other than put there by God for human enjoyment.

• Concludes not only that God exists, but that his benevolent nature is revealed.

List some of Hume’s criticisms of the teleologiccal argument

• Apprentice God

• Not God of classical theism

• Problem with analogies

• Can’t assume the world is well ordered

• Jumps to conclusion of God - could be other explanation

What is a scientific challenge to the teleological argument?

Evolution by natural selection - Features developed gradually and many species didn’t survive and went extinct. The ones with the best adaptations survived and passed down their genes. Many saw this as a better explanation for order and purpose in the natural world than God.

Give some challenges to the anthropic principle

• Human life designed for the world, not the world for human life.

• Could be an infinite number of universes, human life is chance.

• Gives humanity an unwarranted special status.

Give some challenges to the aesthetic principle

• Beauty is a matter of taste and opinion, not an objective quality.

• The world also has a lot of ugly and cruelty, we need an explanation for this too.

Explain how the problem of evil challenges the design argument

The world is full of evil and hate, disease, natural disasters etc. If we attribute design to God, we must also attribute all the evil in the world to him.