a period of European economic expansion, which began in the 16th century. The catalyst for this expansion was Europe's discovery and colonization of the Americas.

The commercial revolution

a period of sustained and significant inflation in Europe, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. This inflation was largely driven by the influx of precious metals, especially silver and gold, from the Americas, which flooded European markets and increased the money supply.

The price revolution

Italian poet. renowned as the "Father of Humanism" for his foundational role in Renaissance humanism. he is known for his deep interest in classical literature, including collecting and studying ancient Latin manuscripts. 

Petrarch (1304 - 1374)

He was a key figure in the Northern Renaissance, celebrated for his translations and editing of classical and Christian texts, particularly the New Testament. His satirical works, like "In Praise of Folly," critiqued societal and religious abuses, influencing reform movements in Europe. 

Erasmus (1469 - 1536)

He broke with the Roman Catholic Church and had Parliament declare him supreme head of the Church of England, starting the English Reformation, because the pope would not annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He wanted to remarry and produce a male heir.

King of England Henry VIII (1509-1547)

known for unifying England, defeating the Spanish Armada, and fostering a golden age of arts and exploration. She also established a moderate religious settlement, balanced political power, and skillfully navigated foreign relations. 

Elizabeth the 1st (1558-1603)

a forced, global system of human trafficking where millions of African people were captured, transported, and sold to European and American slaveholders in the Americas. This trade spanned from the mid-16th century to the 1860s, impacting Africa, Europe, the Americas, and Asia. 

The transatlantic slave trade

a major figure of the Protestant Reformation, is known for his theological framework, often referred to as Calvinism, which emphasizes God's sovereignty, predestination, and the importance of the Bible. His beliefs, outlined in his magnum opus, the "Institutes of the Christian Religion", have influenced various Protestant traditions, including Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregational churches. 

John Calvin

a group of Protestant Christians who emerged during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation and are known for their belief in adult baptism, separation of church and state, and pacifism.

Anababaptists

a decree issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598 that granted religious toleration to the Huguenots, or French Protestants, in a primarily Catholic country. It aimed to end the French Wars of Religion by establishing a peace agreement that recognized and protected the rights of Protestants. 

The edict of Nantes

refers to two treaties, the Treaty of Osnabrück and the Treaty of Münster, signed in 1648. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch Republic. They are significant for establishing a basis for national self-determination and recognizing the sovereignty of states. allowed religious tolerance finally including calvinists

The Peace of Westphalia

a Catholic religious order of priests and brothers founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola. convertors with the aim of stopping the reformation

Jesuits

a crucial ecumenical council convened by the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation. Held in three periods from 1545 to 1563 in the city of Trent, Italy, it aimed to address the doctrinal and practical issues raised by the Reformation and to reaffirm Catholic teachings. 

The council of Trent

It's characterized by a deliberate departure from the balance, harmony, and naturalism of the High Renaissance, favoring instead asymmetry, exaggerated proportions, and a sense of artificial elegance. Think of it as a "stylish-style" that prioritized the artist's unique flair and technical skill. 

mannerism art

characterized by its dramatic use of light and shadow, rich colors, and dynamic compositions.

Baroque art

a catastrophic series of conflicts that took place in the middle of the 17th century. Fought between those loyal to the king, Charles I, and those loyal to Parliament, the wars divided the country at all levels of society.

The English Civil War

a period in English history, from 1688 to 1689, where King James II was deposed and replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. This event was a result of growing opposition to James II's religious policies and his attempts to establish an absolute monarchy.

The glorious revolution

o a period of significant advancements in agricultural practices that dramatically increased food production, particularly in Britain between the 17th and 19th centuries. This revolution involved innovations like new crop rotation systems, selective breeding of livestock, and the adoption of new farming tools. These changes led to increased efficiency, higher yields, and ultimately, a larger population. 

The agricultural revolution

. It involved employers providing raw materials to households and individuals who would then process them into finished or semi-finished goods in their homes. This system was prevalent during the late Middle Ages and proto-industrialization era (13th-19th centuries) and played a crucial role in the development of market-oriented economies and the decline of feudalism

The putting-out system

a federal republic that existed from 1588 to 1795, predating the modern-day Netherlands. It was formed by the provinces of the Spanish Netherlands after revolting against Spanish rule, ultimately achieving independence in 1588. golden age in the 17th century.

The dutch republic

three territorial divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793, and 1795) by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. These partitions resulted in the gradual reduction of Polish territory and eventually led to the complete disappearance of sovereign Poland and Lithuania in 1795. 

The partition of Poland

expedition by the Ottomans against the Habsburg Holy Roman emperor Leopold I that resulted in their defeat by a combined force led by John III Sobieski of Poland. The lifting of the siege marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman domination in eastern Europe.

the siege or battle of Vienna in 1683

also known as the Sun King, is primarily remembered for establishing an absolute monarchy, building the opulent Palace of Versailles, and transforming France into a dominant European power. He is also known for his long reign (72 years), aggressive foreign policy, and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which persecuted Protestants. 

Louis XIV or the 14th

the period of radical changes in military strategy and tactics, primarily between 1560 and 1660, that profoundly impacted European societies and politics. Key innovations, such as the widespread adoption of portable firearms and improved drill techniques, led to larger, more disciplined standing armies and significant increases in the cost of warfare. 

The military revolution

primarily known for his role as Louis XIV's finance minister and his implementation of economic policies known as Colbertism, which helped strengthen the French economy and navy during the 17th century. He is also credited with founding the Académie Royale des Sciences, a scientific society, and for his work in promoting French trade and industry. 

John-baptise Colbert

modernized Russia

Peter the 1st or the great

westernized Russia. She led her country into full participation in the political and cultural life of Europe. She championed the arts and reorganized the Russian law code.

Catherine the 2nd of Russia

developing and publishing the heliocentric theory of the solar system,

Nicolaus Copernicus

pioneering the experimental scientific method and making groundbreaking astronomical discoveries using a telescope. He's considered the "father of modern astronomy" and the "father of modern physics" for his contributions to the study of motion, astronomy, and the development of scientific inquiry.  provided evidence for the heliocentric theory

Galileo Galilei

formulated laws of motion and gravitation

Isaac Newton

revolutionary discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body

William Harvey

his contributions to medicine and philosophy. He is considered one of the most influential figures in the history of medicine, with his writings serving as the basis for medical knowledge for over 1,500 years

Galen

promotion of the scientific method, which emphasized observation and experimentation in scientific inquiry.

Francis Bacon

his contributions to philosophy, particularly his Cartesian dualism (the idea that mind and body are distinct substances) and the "I think, therefore I am" (Cogito, ergo sum) statement. He also made significant contributions to mathematics, including the development of analytical geometry and the Cartesian coordinate system. 

Rene Descartes

freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the separation of church and state.

Voltaire

was the main editorial driving force behind the Encyclopedia, a monumental task of scholarship with the objective of creating a new compendium of knowledge, which presented provocative new ideas in philosophy, the arts, and science.

Denis Diderot

main theory revolves around natural rights, the social contract, and the separation of powers. He argued that individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments derive their legitimacy from the consent of the governed, with the power ultimately residing in the people. Locke also advocated for a separation of powers within government to prevent tyranny. 

John Locke

everyone was born free and equal. Natural goodness

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

intellectual and social gatherings, especially prevalent in 18th-century France, where individuals discussed ideas, literature, and the arts.

salons

An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. This book laid the foundations for modern economics and classical economic theory, including concepts like the division of labor, the invisible hand, and the importance of free trade. 

Adam Smith

an economic theory which states that the wealth of nations is derived solely from the value of “land agriculture” or “land development” and that agricultural products.

Physiocrat

a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity.

Neoclassical art

occurred primarily between 1789 and 1792, following the initial outbreak of the French Revolution. Key achievements during this phase included the establishment of the National Assembly and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

The liberal phase of the French rev

lasting from 1789 to 1792, saw the rise of the National Assembly and the adoption of key reforms aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy and reforming the French government. This phase included the Tennis Court Oath, the storming of the Bastille, and the creation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

The moderate phase of the French rev

known for his role during the French Revolution, culminating in his execution by guillotine in 1793. He was also known for supporting the American Revolution and for his attempts at reforming the French government, particularly in the area of finance. Additionally, he was a patron of the arts and sciences, particularly interested in scientific experiments and maritime exploration. 

Louis XVI the 16th

was a leader of the French Revolution best known for leading the Reign of Terror. He was an important member of the Jacobin political party.

Maximilien Robespierre

led a successful slave revolt and emancipated the slaves in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti). A formidable military leader, he turned the colony into a country governed by former black slaves as a nominal French protectorate and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola

Toussaint Louverture

He rose through the ranks of the French military during the French Revolution, becoming a powerful military leader and eventually Emperor of France. His military victories and ambition expanded French influence across Europe, and his Napoleonic Code significantly shaped legal systems in France and beyond. 

Napoleon Bonaparte

held in 1814-1815, was a series of international diplomatic meetings that aimed to restore peace and stability in Europe following the Napoleonic Wars. It was primarily focused on redrawing the map of Europe, establishing a balance of power, and restoring monarchies to their former positions. 

The congress of Vienna

a movement that emphasized emotion, imagination, and the individual experience over reason and order. It emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, largely as a reaction to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Key themes included nature, the sublime, the supernatural, and the individual's relationship to both. 

Romanticism art

primarily centered in Britain (mid-18th century to about 1830), was characterized by innovations in technology, particularly the steam engine and advancements in textile manufacturing. These technological leaps spurred rapid urbanization, new social structures, and economic shifts, including the rise of factories and a factory-based workforce. 

The first Industrial Revolution

roughly from 1870 to 1914, was a period of rapid technological advancement and industrial growth, largely driven by innovations in steel, electricity, and the internal combustion engine.

Second Industrial Revolution

a historical German state centered on the North European Plain, which emerged from the Teutonic Order in 1525 and played a crucial role in unifying Germany in the 19th century. It transitioned through various forms, including a Duchy, a Kingdom, and a Free State, before being abolished in 1947. 

Prussia

the awareness of one's social and economic position within a specific class, and the understanding of shared class interests and the structure of that class. It's a key concept, particularly within the context of the Industrial Revolution, where it relates to the rising awareness among working-class individuals of their collective situation and the struggle for better conditions. 

class consciousness

the middle class, specifically those who own capital and means of production, like merchants, industrialists, and professionals. They are contrasted with the proletariat (working class) and often challenge traditional feudal structures.

the bourgeoisie

a system of diplomacy and international relations that existed from 1815 to 1914. It was formed after the Napoleonic Wars by the major European powers (Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia) to maintain a balance of power, prevent future conflicts, and suppress revolutionary movements. 

The concert of Europe

is primarily known for his role in the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), where he helped shape the diplomatic framework that sought to restore and maintain balance in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. He was a leading figure in the Concert of Europeand a staunch supporter of conservatism, seeking to preserve the old regime against liberalism and nationalism. 

Klemens von metternich

also known as the Spring of Nations, were a series of revolutionary movements that swept across Europe in 1848, primarily centered in Central and Western Europe. These revolts, fueled by demands for political liberalization, nationalism, and socialism, sought to overthrow existing monarchies and establish more democratic governments. 

The revolutions of 1848

also known as the First Russian Revolution, was a period of widespread social and political unrest in the Russian Empire, sparked by the Russo-Japanese War and fueled by issues like economic stagnation, political repression, and agrarian crisis. Key events included strikes, peasant uprisings, and military mutinies. It's often seen as a precursor to the 1917 Russian Revolution. 

1905 Russian revolution

an economic and political system advocating for social ownership of the means of production and distribution, aiming to reduce inequality and promote greater social welfare. It emerged in response to the inequalities of the industrial era and became a significant force in European politics in the 19th and 20th centuries. 

Socialism

president of the Second Republic of France from 1850 to 1852 and the emperor of France from 1852 to 1870. He gave his country two decades of prosperity under an authoritarian government but finally led it to defeat in the Franco-German War.

Napoleon the 3rd

The figure who forged the Kingdom of Italy, designe d the constitutional structure of the unitary state and served as its first prime minister was the second son of an aristocratic Piedmontese family.

Camilo Cavour

known for unifying Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic maneuvers, and for serving as the first chancellor of the German Empire. He was a master strategist and diplomat, and his policies significantly shaped modern Germany and the European political landscap

Otto Von Bismarck

disputes between Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire over religious rights and access to holy sites in Ottoman territory, particularly in the Holy Land.a major 19th-century conflict fought primarily on the Crimean Peninsula between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the United Kingdom, France, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont

Crimean War

famous for his role in the Italian Risorgimento, the unification of Italy in the 19th century. He was a general, patriot, and republican who led volunteer armies, known as "Redshirts," in successful campaigns against Austria and the Bourbon monarchy in Sicily and Naples. His military achievements and charismatic leadership made him a national hero. 

Garibaldi

a political strategy based on practical considerations and pragmatic actions, rather than on moral, ideological, or ethical beliefs. It emphasizes achieving specific goals through a calculated approach, often involving compromises and a willingness to act in ways that might be considered unconventional or even immoral. 

RealPolitik (popularized by Otto Von Bismarck)

His work led to a shift in scientific thought and influenced societal views on race, class, and national identity, ultimately contributing to the rise of social Darwinism and imperialism. 

Charles Darwin

a philosophy that emphasizes empirical observation and scientific reasoning as the primary sources of knowledge. It suggests that human knowledge is based on observable phenomena and can be used to understand and solve social problems

Positivism

focused on capturing fleeting moments and the effects of light and color on everyday subjects.Impressionists, like Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir,painted en plein air (outdoors) to capture the immediacy of life. They used loose brushstrokes and bright colors, creating an "impression" of a scene rather than a meticulously detailed representation. 

Impressionism

a late 19th-century art movement that followed Impressionism and is characterized by its diverse and individualistic styles. While not a unified movement, it included artists who rejected Impressionism's focus on naturalistic light and color, instead emphasizing abstract qualities, symbolic content, and individual expression. Key figures include Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh

Post-impressionism

also known as the October Revolution, was a major event in the Russian Revolution of 1917, where the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power from the Provisional Government. This resulted in the establishment of the world's first communist state. 

Bolshevik revolution

a political ideology that combines the theories of Karl Marx with those of Vladimir Lenin. It advocates for a two-stage communist revolution where a vanguard party seizes power on behalf of the proletariat, establishing a socialist state called the "dictatorship of the proletariat". This state is then guided by democratic centralism. 

marxist-leninist theory

ed the October Revolution which established the world's first socialist state. His government won the Russian Civil War and created a one-party state under the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism. founder and leader of bolsheviks

Vladimir Lenin

implemented by Vladimir Lenin in 1921, was a shift away from the extreme economic policies of War Communism. It reintroduced elements of capitalism, like private ownership of small businesses and a free market for some goods, to stimulate economic recovery after the Russian Civil War.

New economic policy

signed on June 28, 1919, officially ended World War I between Germany and the Allied Powers. issues germanys responsibility with things like war reparations

treaty of Versailles

established after World War I as part of the Treaty of Versailles, was an international organization aimed at preventing future conflicts through diplomacy and cooperation. It's considered a predecessor to the United Nations. However, the League faced significant challenges, including the absence of major powers like the United States, and ultimately failed to prevent World War II. 

League of Nations

Germany's government from 1919 to 1933, faced significant challenges including hyperinflation, political instability, and the Great Depression, ultimately leading to its downfall and the rise of the Nazi Party. It was established after World War I, following the collapse of the German Empire, and was characterized by a democratic constitution with a bill of rights and proportional representation

The Weimar Republic

a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

the Soviet Union

leader of the Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the subsequent dictator of Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975

Francisco Franco

is an ideology and political movement advocating for a classless, stateless society where property is owned communally and resources are distributed equally. It's characterized by the abolition of private property, common ownership of resources, and a goal to dismantle capitalist systems. 

Communism

a group of expatriate American writers and artists who came of age during World War I and found disillusionment and a sense of loss in the post-war world, often seeking solace in Europe. The term is also used more broadly to describe the generation that experienced the war and its aftermath. 

The lost generation

short for the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, was a communist-era economic organization established in 1949 by the Soviet Union and other socialist states. It aimed to promote economic cooperation and trade among member countries, primarily those in the Eastern Bloc, and to facilitate industrial and agricultural development.

Comecon

enjoyed considerable popularity throughout the 1950s due to the successful launching of Sputnik and victorious outcomes in the Suez Crisis, the Syrian Crisis of 1957, and the 1960 U-2 inciden

Khrushchev

s a major event in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1962 to 1965. It was the 21st ecumenical council of the Catholic Church and was convened by Pope John XXIII.The council aimed at spiritual renewal for the Church and fostering a greater understanding and unity among Christians. 

Second Vatican council

a late 20th-century intellectual movement that challenged modernism's focus on progress and objective truth. It is characterized by a skeptical and self-aware approach to art, culture, and philosophy, often emphasizing the elusive nature of truth and the role of language and representation.

post modernism

an economic policy where the government avoids interference in the market, allowing it to operate freely with minimal regulation or control.

Laissez-faire economic policy

an economic and political system where society, or the state, collectively owns and controls the means of production (like factories and resources) instead of individual private ownership. Government runs everything

Socialism

a major 19th-century conflict fought primarily on the Crimean Peninsula between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the United Kingdom, France, and the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont.

The Crimean War