CHEM 1130 FINAL EXAM DUTTA

When pKa > pH

the R group will form an ion

When pH > pKa

the structure is deprotonated (more basic)

When pH < pKa

the structure is protonated (more acidic)

When there are more negative charges

the pH will be higher

When there are more positive charges

the pH will be lower

When HCL is present

-it is there to increase solubility and to help eliminate the bad smell of the amine group

-It is now soluble in water and alcohol

-HCL makes it a salt.

Salts

soluble

Neutral compounds

not soluble

Primary protein

sequence of amino acids in a amino acid chain

Secondary protein

alpha helix, or beta plated sheet (H-bonds are present in the backbone)

Tertiary protein

Overall 3D structure of the protein (H-phobic, Disulfide, Salt bridge, H-bond)

Quaternary protein

More than 1 polypeptide chain

Hydrogen bonds

occur in the backbone. Create a fold in structure. Typically, _________ side chains are present on the surface of a folded protein, where they can form __________ with surrounding water molecules

Salt Bridges

Attractions between the positive and negative charges in side chains create salt bridges.

Hydrophobic

Mostly CH3 groups

Disulfide

Sulfide sulfide bonds

Hemiacetal

hydrogen OH-C-OR

Acetal

has 2 -OR groups (ethers) OR-C-OR

Denature

Heating, pH, adding acid/base (effects the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure)

Inhibition

any process that stops or slows down the action of an enzyme

Feedback control

regulation of enzymes activity by the product later on in the pathway

Allosteric Control

interaction where binding at the one site affects the proteins ability to bind another molecule at a different site.

Covalent Modification

adding or removing a covalent portion or group to an enzyme

Genetic Control

makes enzymes only when needed

Irreversible inhibition

permanently bonds to active site, kills the enzyme

Reversible inhibition

inhibitor can leave the active site resuming enzyme activity

Competitive

Competes to bond at active site, is very similar to the substrate

Noncompetitive

binds to the allosteric site and closes off the active site

Agonist

binds to the receptor and activates

Antagonist

binds to the receptor and inhibits/blocks

Oxidoreductases

catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

Transferases

catalyze the transfer of a group from one molecule to another molecule

Hydrolases

catalyze the hydrolysis of substrates (breaking of water)

A-B +H2O > A-OH + B-H

Isomerases

catalyze the isomerization of substrate. (typically one substrate and one product)

Lyases

catalyze the bonding together of 2 substrate molecules (involves conversion of ATP>ADP)

Neurotransmitters

travel through the nervous system

Hormones

travel through the endocrine system

Amino-Acid derivatives

require 2nd messenger system

Polypeptides

require 2nd messenger system

Steroids

do not require 2nd messenger system

Epinephrine

a hormone and a neurotransmitter (fight or flight) releases glucose to use right away

Acetylcholine

responsible for all skeletal muscle movements

Insulin

lowers our blood sugar - hydrogenesis

Glucagon

raises your blood sugar, break down glycogen stores

Type 1 diabetes

insulin dependent

Type 2 diabetes

insulin independent; insulin receptors aren't working properly

Step 1 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Activation of G protein in a cell membrane

Step 2 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Production of GTP from GDP

Step 3 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Activation of adentiate cylase

Step 4 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Conversion of ATP > cAMP

Step 5 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Release of glucose to the bloodstream

Step 6 of chemical response of a cell to epinephrine

Conversion of cAMP > ATP

When determining if the cyclic structures are reducing sugars

you must have a hemiacetal

When a cyclic structure is formed

the chiral carbon is considered the anomeric carbon

B-linkage

more stable than A-linkage.

cellulose

Our body cannot digest ________ because we do not have the necessary enzymes to break the beta-linkages

Chiral carbons

all four groups attached are different

Racemate

an equal number of positive and negative chiral carbons

Phospholipid

Has a charged phosphate group attached

Glycolipid

Contain a backbone that have an NH. Have an attached carbohydrate. Can be identified by an anomeric ring

Sphingolipid

contain sphingosine which is a backbone containing NH. Also include a sphingomyelin which a phosphate group is attached as well as an additional H2N.

Carbohydrates

-digested in the mouth

-broken down by hydrolysis

Fatty acids

-digested in the small intestines

-broken down by the B-Oxidation pathway

Lipids

-digested in the small intestines

Citric Acid Cycle

- to reduce coenzymes that go to the electron transport chain and produce CO2

- Requires oxygen

- Acetyl CoA is oxidized to Co2 which is eventually made into water in the ETC

Electron Transport Chain

carries NADH and FADH2 and uses the energy from those to pump H+ ions

B-Oxidation pathway

Oxidize fatty acids. Cuts fatty acids into 2-carbon molecules (Acetyl-CoA)

Cori Cycle

Converts lactate back to glucose

Carboxylic Acid

Heterocyclic

Something other than carbon in the ACTUAL ring

Amide

Thiols

Ester

Aromatic

Hemiacetals

Amine

Ether

Ketone

Alcohol

Disulfides

Sulfides

Acetals

Aldehyde

Phosphates

glycolysis

-breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP

-Anaerobic

-occurs in mitochondria

Gluconeogenesis

the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids

Chemical process that converts lactate and pyruvate back into glucose.

Within the liver

Glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose-- by insulin or anabolic conditions

Glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Glygoneogensis

glucose form non-carbohydrates

Outside and inside layer cell membrane

Hydrophillic

Middle layer of cell membrane

Hydrophobic

mitochondrion

Cell organelle that converts the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work

ADP

Adenosine Diphosphate is a chemical that plays an important role in energy transfer

Metabolism

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

Oxidation

Loss of electrons

Reduction

Gain of electrons

stage 1 of

metabolism

Digestion - enzymes in the saliva, stomach, and small intestine