Natural Rights
These are rights inherent to all individuals, not granted by any government. They exist naturally, prior to the existence of government.
"A long train of abuses and usurpations"
This is the core of the Declaration of Independence's argument for separation, detailing grievances against King George III and British Parliament.
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Natural Rights
These are rights inherent to all individuals, not granted by any government. They exist naturally, prior to the existence of government.
"A long train of abuses and usurpations"
This is the core of the Declaration of Independence's argument for separation, detailing grievances against King George III and British Parliament.
Right of Revolution
This idea states that if a government becomes tyrannical and consistently violates natural rights, the people have a right and duty to alter or abolish that government.
"Join, Or Die"
A political cartoon from the French and Indian War, urging the colonies to unite for common defense against threats.
Salutary Neglect
A period when Britain loosely enforced its laws in the American colonies, allowing them to develop self-governance.
French and Indian War
Britain's victory over France gained significant territory in North America but also led to British debt and resentment from the colonies.
Stamp Act
The first direct tax on American colonies, requiring stamps on legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards, sparking protests.
Magna Carta
An English document from 1215 that established principles of limited government and due process under English law.
Declaratory Act
Passed on the same day the Stamp Act was repealed, asserting Parliament's full authority to make laws for the colonies.
Townshend Acts
Taxes on imported goods like glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea, which met with colonial resistance.
Quartering Act
Required colonists to house British soldiers if other accommodations were unavailable, seen as a violation of privacy.
Boston Massacre
A confrontation where British soldiers fired into a crowd of protesters, killing five colonists and inflaming anti-British sentiment.
Tea Act
Allowed the British East India Company to sell tea directly to colonial buyers, leading to the Boston Tea Party.
Sons of Liberty
A secret society of anti-British protesters who organized boycotts and rallied support against British policies.
Boston Tea Party
Protesters disguised as Mohawk Indians dumped British tea into Boston Harbor in response to the Tea Act.
Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts)
British punitive measures aimed at Boston and Massachusetts in response to the Boston Tea Party. These acts closed Boston Harbor, curtailed self-government in Massachusetts, and expanded the Quartering Act, among other things.
First Continental Congress (Philadelphia)
A meeting of colonial delegates in response to the Intolerable Acts. It marked the beginning of united colonial political action, asserting American rights, condemning unfair British acts, establishing a boycott of British goods, and planning a future meeting.
Lexington and Concord (Massachusetts)
Locations of the first armed skirmishes of the American Revolution, often called 'the shot heard 'round the world.'
Common Sense (Thomas Paine)
An extremely influential pamphlet published in 1776 that powerfully argued for American independence, mobilizing widespread popular support. It was a runaway bestseller.
Second Continental Congress (Philadelphia)
Met in response to the skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. This body ultimately made the Declaration of Independence and appointed George Washington as commander of the Continental Army.
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
Rule of Law
The principle that all persons, institutions, and entities are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced, and independently adjudicated.
Unalienable right
A right that cannot be taken away or denied.
Social contract
An agreement among members of an organized society or between the governed and the government, by which individuals implicitly surrender some of their natural rights in exchange for the protection and security offered by the government.
'We the people…'
This phrase from the Preamble of the Constitution directly represents the principle of popular sovereignty.
Rule of law, dimensions of (4)
The government follows established and agreed-upon rules, rather than acting arbitrarily based on a leader's whims. This ensures fairness and predictability.
Constitutionalism
A government's powers are defined and limited by a constitution, which acts as a higher law.
Higher law and natural rights
State constitutions recognized individuals' inherent rights that the government could not infringe upon, reflecting the natural rights philosophy of the Revolution.
Representation and the right to vote
State constitutions established systems where citizens elected representatives to make decisions on their behalf (republican values). The right to vote was often expanded, though usually limited to white male property owners.
Legislative supremacy
Many early state constitutions granted the legislative branch the most power.
Checks and balances
The allocation of powers among different branches of government to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Articles of Confederation
The first constitution of the United States that established a weak central government with only one branch: the legislative (Congress).
Structure of government
A unicameral (one-house) Congress, with each state having one vote, and no executive or judicial branch.
Achievements of government under A. of C.
Successfully waged and won the Revolutionary War, negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1783), established executive departments for finance and foreign affairs, and created a plan for governing the Northwest Territory.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
A significant achievement that created a plan for governing the Northwest Territory, prohibiting slavery, and providing a process for admitting new states to the Union.
Weaknesses of A. of C.
The national government had no power to levy or enforce taxes, enforce agreements with foreign nations, regulate trade among states, make laws about citizens' behavior directly, and required 9 of 13 states to approve a law.
Shays' Rebellion
A revolt of farmers in Massachusetts protesting high taxes and foreclosures, highlighting the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
435 Representatives
Allocated proportionally to states based on population, determined by census every 10 years.
100 Senators
Allocated equally to states (2 per state), regardless of population.
Speaker of the House
The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, elected by its members.
Powers of the House of Representatives
Includes initiating all revenue (tax) bills, impeaching federal officials, and electing the President if no candidate receives a majority in the Electoral College.
President of the Senate
The Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate and can cast a vote to break a tie.
Bill → Law
A bill must be passed in identical form by both the House of Representatives and the Senate to become a law.
Presidential veto
The President can reject a bill passed by Congress.
Override with a ⅔ vote in BOTH chambers
Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both the House and the Senate.
"Earmarks"
Specific provisions added by members of Congress to spending bills to direct funds to specific projects or programs within their district or state.
Subpoena
A legal order compelling a person to appear in court or produce documents. Failure to cooperate can lead to being held in contempt of Congress, which can result in fines or jail time.
Treaty ratification
The Senate has the power to ratify treaties. Two-thirds of senators must vote in favor to ratify a treaty.
Presidential qualifications
Must be a natural-born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years old, and have been a resident within the United States for 14 years.
Oath of office
The President must swear an oath before taking office: 'I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.'
Commander in Chief
The President is the supreme commander of the U.S. Army and Navy (and all armed forces).
Treaty-making powers
The President has the authority to negotiate and sign treaties with foreign nations. However, these treaties require the advice and consent of the Senate (a two-thirds vote) to be ratified and become binding U.S. law.
Appointment powers
The President nominates ambassadors, federal judges, and other high-ranking government officials. These appointments require the advice and consent of the Senate (a simple majority vote) to be confirmed.
Impeachment and removal grounds
The President (and other federal officials) can be impeached by the House of Representatives and removed from office by the Senate upon conviction of 'Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.'
Supreme Court
The highest court in the United States, established by the Constitution.
Congressional power
Congress has the power to create additional, lower federal courts (inferior to the Supreme Court).
Lifetime tenure
Federal judges, including Supreme Court justices, serve 'during good behavior,' which effectively means lifetime tenure.
Original jurisdiction
The authority of a court to hear a case for the first time. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and cases in which a state is a party.
Appellate jurisdiction
The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts. The Supreme Court primarily functions under appellate jurisdiction, hearing appeals from lower federal and state courts.
Trial by jury
The Constitution guarantees the right to a trial by jury in all criminal trials (except impeachment cases).
Trial location
Criminal trials must be held in the state where the crimes were committed.
Treason - definition of
Treason against the United States consists only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. To be convicted, there must be the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
Purpose of a deliberative body
A deliberative body (like Congress) is an organized assembly whose purpose is to discuss, debate, and make decisions on matters of public importance after careful thought and reasoned argument.
Bicameral Structure of Congress
The two chambers (House and Senate) have different compositions (population-based vs. equal representation) and election cycles (2 years vs. 6 years), providing different perspectives and internal checks and balances.
Enumerated Powers
Specific powers explicitly granted to Congress by the Constitution in Article I, Section 8, including the power to tax, declare war, and regulate commerce.
Necessary and Proper Clause
Found in Article I, Section 8, this clause grants Congress the power to make all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying into execution its enumerated powers, allowing flexibility while being tied to original grants of authority.
Electoral College Electors
In the Electoral College, the number of electors for each state is equal to its total number of Representatives (based on population) plus its total number of Senators (always 2).
Supreme Court Justices' Terms
Supreme Court justices serve life terms ('during good behavior') to maintain independence from politics, allowing them to focus on constitutional interpretation.
Veto Power
The President can veto a bill passed by Congress, which Congress can override with a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate, sharing legislative power.
Appointments
The President nominates officials and judges, but the Senate must approve or disapprove these nominations.
Treaties
The President negotiates treaties, but they must be approved by a two-thirds vote in the Senate.
War Powers
The President is Commander-in-Chief, but only Congress has the power to declare war and control funding necessary to wage war, preventing unilateral military action.
Impeachment
Congress has the power to impeach the President, other executive officials, and federal judges, with the House bringing charges and the Senate conducting the trial requiring a two-thirds majority for conviction.
Judicial Review
The power of the judiciary to determine the constitutionality of acts passed by Congress and actions of the executive branch, established in Marbury v. Madison (1803).
Engagement in Foreign Policy
A country actively participates in international affairs, forming alliances, engaging in diplomacy, and often intervening in global issues.
Isolationism
A country withdraws from international affairs, focusing primarily on its own domestic issues and avoiding alliances or interventions.
Idealism
A foreign policy approach that emphasizes moral principles, values, and the promotion of democracy, human rights, and international cooperation.
Realism
A foreign policy approach that prioritizes national self-interest, security, and power, viewing international relations as a struggle for power among states.
Unilateralism
A country acts alone in pursuing its foreign policy goals, without seeking the approval or cooperation of other nations.
Multilateralism
Countries work together and cooperate with other nations to achieve common foreign policy goals, often through international organizations and alliances.
Formative Experiences of Xi Jinping
His early life, including his family's political background and his time spent in rural areas during the Cultural Revolution, shaped his understanding of power and the importance of the Communist Party.
China Under Mao Zedong
Mao's era (1949-1976) profoundly impacted China, establishing the Communist Party's ideology and centralized control.
Trade War with the U.S.
An ongoing economic conflict involving tariffs and trade barriers, reflecting broader strategic competition between the two powers.
South China Sea Territorial Disputes
China's assertive claims over islands and waters in the South China Sea have led to tensions with neighboring countries and increased military presence.
Hong Kong
Recent events, including widespread protests against perceived erosion of autonomy and the imposition of a national security law, reflect Beijing's tightening control.
Taiwan
A critical and sensitive issue where China views Taiwan as a breakaway province and seeks eventual reunification, by force if necessary.
Powers of Congress
Declare war, regulate foreign commerce, approve treaties (Senate), fund the military and foreign aid, oversee foreign policy, confirm ambassadorial appointments (Senate).
Powers of the President
Commander in Chief of the armed forces, negotiates treaties, appoints ambassadors, recognizes foreign governments, signs executive agreements.
Sources of tension between Congress and the President
Both branches have constitutional roles in foreign policy, leading to inherent tension as they often compete for influence and control.
Evolution of the balance of power over time
Historically, Congress played a more dominant role in foreign policy, especially in declaring war.
War Powers Resolution of 1973
Enacted by Congress to limit the President's ability to deploy troops into hostile situations without congressional approval. It requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and mandates withdrawal within 60-90 days unless Congress authorizes the deployment or declares war.
Article 1
Legislative Branch - Defines the powers and structure of the U.S. Congress (House of Representatives and Senate). It lays out the powers of Congress (enumerated powers) and limitations on those powers.
Article 2
Executive Branch - Defines the powers and responsibilities of the President and Vice President, including election, qualifications, and the Electoral College.
Article 3
Judicial Branch - Establishes the Supreme Court and grants Congress the power to create lower federal courts. Defines judicial powers, jurisdiction, and treason.
Article 4
States and Federalism - Outlines the relationship between the states and the federal government, including full faith and credit among states, privileges and immunities of citizens, and the admission of new states.
Article 5
Amendment Process - Describes the process for amending (changing) the Constitution, requiring a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or a two-thirds vote of state legislatures to propose, and ratification by three-fourths of the states.
Article 6
Supremacy Clause and Debts - Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law of the land, meaning federal law takes precedence over state law when there is a conflict. Also addresses national debts and oaths of office.
Article 7
Ratification - Details the process by which the Constitution was to be ratified by the states (required nine of the thirteen states).
Article 1, Section 8
Lays out the enumerated (expressed) powers of Congress. These are the specific powers that Congress can exercise (e.g., to lay and collect taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, declare war, establish post offices, coin money).
Article 1, Section 9
Lays out limitations on the powers of Congress. These are things that Congress is prohibited from doing (e.g., suspending Habeas Corpus, passing bills of attainder or ex post facto laws, taxing exports, granting titles of nobility).