Health and Human Development aos 1 unit 2 revision

Prenatal stage (fertilisation-birth)

3-38 weeks

Begins with sperm penetrating an egg (fertilisation) to form one complete zygote

Continues until birth, characterised by the development of the body's organs and structures, and substantial growth

Unborn baby goes from a single cell to 200 billion cells at birth and weighs around 3.5 kg on average. Process takes approx. 38 weeks to complete

Fastest growth period of all the human lifespan stages.

Infancy (Birth-2 years)

Debate about end of infancy, historically viewed as the onset of speech

However as infants vary greatly in speech starting times, many professionals have adopted the view that this stage ends with the 2nd bday

Period of rapid growth

By the end of infancy, they have developed their motor skills and can walk, use simple words, identify people who are familiar to them, play social games, throw tantrums

Many of the developmental milestones the infant achieves will have some sort of bearing on how they develop in later years.

Childhood (2-12 years)

Like infancy, start and end of childhood stage= difficult to define as the age of the onset of puberty varies greatly, so instead we use the 12th bday to signify the end of the childhood stage, which generally coincides with the completion of primary school.

Early childhood (2-6 years)

Stage is characterised by slow and steady growth, and the accomplishment of many new skills.

Child learns social skills which allow them to interact with other people.

During this stage they will make friends, be able to eat with adults at the table and become toilet trained.

Late childhood (6-12 years)

Like early childhood, late childhood is characterised by slow and steady growth.

Many physical, social, emotional and intellectual changes that occur as the child moves through this stage.

Include refining reading and writing skills, developing long term memory, understanding gender stereotypes and refining motor skills.

Youth (12-18 years)

Puberty is starting earlier, young people are taking longer to gain independence and reach maturity in other aspects of their lives and therefore the youth lifespan has lengthened.

Youth stage is characterised by rapid growth, increased independence and sexual maturity.

This stage of the lifespan is concerned with moving from childhood to adulthood.

Youth undergo vast physical changes in order to achieve sexual maturity and therefore the ability to reproduce.

Youth will undergo significant social, emotional and intellectual changes as they become accustomed to more independence, complex relationships and the development of life goals.

End of youth is characterised by reaching a level of maturity across physical, social, emotional and intellectual aspects of development.

Early adulthood (18-39 years)

Stage is characterised by the body reaching its physical peak around 25-30, followed by a steady decline in body systems thereafter.

Some growth may continue at the beginning of early adulthood, but all stages of adulthood are essentially periods of maintenance and repair as opposed to the periods of growth experienced in the earlier lifespan stages.

People in this age group often become focused on building a career.

Young adults may also choose a life partner, get married and/or have children.

These events lead to many physical, social, emotional and intellectual changes.

Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

Some of the more common characteristics of this lifespan stage include stability in work and relationships, the further development of identity, including the maturation of values and beliefs, financial security, physical signs of ageing and, for women, menopause.

During this stage, children may gain independence and leave home, giving the parent a new sense of freedom.

Sometimes this can also create a sense of loss or loneliness, often referred to as 'empty nest syndrome'.

Many individuals in the middle adulthood stage will experience the joy of becoming grandparents for the first time, also occurs in late adulthood.

Late adulthood (65+ years)

This period is characterised by a change in lifestyle arising from retirement and financial security (for many)

Can include greater participation in voluntary work and leisure activities (eg golf)

Many older people may also have to endure the grief associated with the death of friends or a spouse.

Their living arrangements may also change, presenting challenges and opportunities for their health and wellbeing and development.

Health and wellbeing begins to decline significantly, older people tend to reflect on life and achievements.

May provide a sense of satisfaction or regret, depending on how they assess the choices they have made in their lives.

Perceptions of youth and adulthood as stages of the lifespan

Perceptions are beliefs or opinions based on how things seem

Perceptions of youth and adulthood therefore relate to the different ways people view the lifespan stages.

Perceptions can be influenced by personal experiences, including what people see and hear.

In the past, difference in opinions between people of different ages was known as the generation gap. The different attitudes between those in different lifespan stages can contribute to a lack of understanding between those different ages.

In order for all people to develop optimally, healthy relationships between generations is essential.

Offering support, guidance and encouragement to those in other lifespan stages is an important consideration for people of all ages.

Factors of perceptions

Past experiences with people in the specific lifespan stage.

The way the media portrays people in the lifespan stage.

Their own experiences in the lifespan stage.

Other peoples opinions.

The way politicians and other public figures speak of various population groups.

Their values and beliefs.

Perceptions of youth

According to study:

Perceptions of youth fit into;

Positive image- youth are positive, ambitious, hardworking and happy

Negative image- youth are frightening, lazy or selfish

Positive social context- youth have many opportunities and are fortunate to live at this time and in this society

Negative social context- youth are devalued, victimised or neglected.

Stereotypical perceptions of youth

Youth are lazy and narcissistic. They do whatever they want, whenever they want.

They are slackers and unable or unwilling to gain ongoing, meaningful employment.

Uneducated and incapable of making informed rational decisions.

They lack the maturity of past generations.

They feel entitled to a decent life and want the world to provide it for them.

More concerned with likes on social media than making a positive impact on society.

Media portrayals of youth

Number of studies of Aust media have shown that the majority of print media articles about youth are related to crime.

The smaller proportion of positive articles often relate to high achievers and therefore do not portray the diversity that exists among youth in Australia.

Programs such as Young, Lazy and Driving us Crazy and Summer Heights High often reinforce the perception of youth as narcissistic, lazy and rude.

Positive perceptions of youth and who holds them:

Youth are vibrant, hard working, happy individuals

Those who have positive personal experiences with young people, such as grandparents, teachers, sports coaches and neighbours.

Positive perceptions of youth and who holds them:

The belief that these years are the best of a person's life. Youth have no real worries or stressors and are free to pursue their dreams.

May come from envy where adults see the broad range of opportunities available to youth or a position of regret, where adults wish they could go back and build a better life for themselves.

Perceptions of adults: early adults

Those in there late teens and early twenties= perceptions are often similar to that of youth. As early adults reach their thirties, they are often seen by there adults as being at their peak physically, being responsible citizens and contributing to society by being productively employed. Youth may see adults of this age as being judgmental and lacking understanding. Again, variations of these perceptions occur as a result of a range of factors including personal experiences.

Perceptions: middle adults

As adults reach their forties and fifties, they are often seen by young people as being out of touch. It is often the perceptions of youth by adults of this age that contribute to this negative perception.

Perceptions: Late adults

Wise and experienced. Older adults are seen as a source of info and expertise and are therefore able to assist in guiding younger people through the challenges they face in their lives. Negative perceptions of older adults are influenced heavily by the media and what other people say.

Negative perceptions of adults

Lonely or isolated

Victims of crime

Forgetful

Don't like being told what to do by someone younger

Resistant to change and have trouble learning complex tasks

Bad drivers

Complain a lot

Burden on the healthcare system

Developmental transitions from youth to adulthood- Physical

DEVELOPMENT

Development encompasses the changes that people experience from conception until death. Often characterised by milestones that are predictable and occur in sequential order.

Going through puberty, learning to walk or learning skills required to interact with others are examples of milestones associated with development.

Lifelong

Qualitative- the quality improves or becomes more complex eg. intellectual development involves changes in a person's perceptions and thinking- not easily measured, can't be 'seen'

All four areas of development are interrelated and therefore affect each other

Physical development

refers to the changes that occur to the body and its systems. It includes external changes that you can see, such as changes in height, and internal changes you cannot see, such ad the increasing size of the heart.

Physical development includes growth as well as motor skill development.

Difference between growth and development

Growth is simply the process of getting bigger; whereas development can mean an increase in complexity, learning a new skill, or a decline in body systems.

'Increase in complexity' refers to changes in organs or systems that may not necessarily make them bigger but makes them more complicated in their function.

Some parts of the body that increase in complexity include the:

endocrine (hormone) system

Nervous system

Muscular system

Immune system

Motor skill development

fine motor- small muscle groups, eg. writing, cutting with scissors, tying shoelaces

gross motor- eg. running, throwing a ball, riding a bike

Growth

From early in the uterus, the embryo begins to develop the cells that will become the vital organs and systems required to sustain life in the outside world.

Refers to organs and systems getting bigger in size. An important aspect of physical development. Occurs during puberty, this is why youth is considered a rapid growth period, along with the prenatal and infancy stages.

Changes to body systems

As well as increasing in size and mass, tissues and systems also change in structure and function.

Examples of changes to the body systems include:

replacement of baby teeth with permanent teeth during childhood

Hardening of bones until early adulthood

The change in the way sex organs function during youth.

The development of the immune system that occurs throughout life.

Physical peak usually occurs in the early twenties. After this point, most of the systems generally decline.

Changes associated with physical decline

Stiffening of the heart as muscle tissue is replaced by connective tissue.

The thickening of the walls of the arteries.

Decrease in aerobic capacity (By up to 70 per cent at age 65)

The gradual loss of bone density that occurs after this point.

Motor skill development

Motor skills refer to the control of the muscles in the body.

A newborn baby had very underdeveloped motor skills (eg uncoordinated limbs)

As the infant gets older, motor skills will develop and movements become more controlled and deliberate.

Fine or gross

Gross- movements that involve large muscle groups such as walking, throwing, skipping and kicking.

Fine- control over the smaller muscle groups such as those used for writing, tying shoelaces, cutting with scissors and manipulating the mouth to speak.

Growth from youth to adulthood

Youth is a time of rapid development and the transition to adulthood is characterised by being sexually mature; being seen as an adult in the eyes of the law; finishing compulsory education; being legally allowed to drink alcohol, drive, vote and join the army and making many other decisions independently.

The transition from youth to adulthood is characterised by a number of physical changes, including;

Growth plates (aka epiphyseal plates) in bones fuse

Sexual maturity

Changes in body composition and structure

The transition to adulthood is marked by significant growth

During youth, on average, a girl will gain 16 cm in height and 16 kg in weight, while boys will gain an extra 20 centimetres in height and 20 kg in length.

By the end of youth or during early adulthood, the epiphyseal plates in long bones fuse and no more growth is possible.

Primary sex characteristics

Parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction

During puberty, changes occur to the organs of reproduction commonly referred to as the 'genitals'

Although present at birth, these organs only start to develop during puberty.

By early adulthood, these organs are usually fully developed and functioning.

Secondary sex characteristics

Arise from changes that occur to both males and females but are not directly related to reproduction and are not present at birth.

By the start fo adulthood, these characteristics are usually fully developed.

Motor skill development continued

As the body matures during youth, the individual will gain more control over it.

By the end of puberty, the arms and legs are proportionate to the rest of the body and coordination generally improves.

The extra strength and endurance gained during puberty increase the ability to carry out many motor skills in adulthood, although due to differences in muscle mass, males generally experience a greater gain in skills requiring strength.

Social development

Social development refers to the increasing complexity of behaviour patterns used in relationships with other people.

Major aspects:

Behaviours (eg. being considerate)

Social roles and expectations (eg. son/daughter, employee, friend and expectations)

Communication skills (eg written and oral communication)

Relationship skills (eg conflict resolution and open communication)

Behaviours

Relates to how individuals act around others.

Learning what behaviours are appropriate in a range of situations is an important part of social development.

Being a good listener and being generous are two examples of behaviours that people may learn.

Social roles and expectations

Humans spend a lot of their time in different groups and will often have distinct roles within those groups.

Examples include the role of employee, friend, son/daughter, coach and teammate.

Each role will generally have a set of behaviours, skills and expectations associated with it.

Gender roles are another example of social roles and to relate to behaviours that are culturally acceptable for males and females.

Although many of these roles are expectations have broken down over the past decades, some cultures still have distinct roles for males and females.

These roles are learnt from a very young age and shape many aspects of the wider society.

Examples of traditional social roles related to gender include:

Males working and females staying at home to look after the children.

Men mowing lawns and women cooking.

Girls playing with dolls while boys play with trucks.

Men and women dressing differently (eg. women wearing skirts and men wearing trousers)

Communication skills

Being able to communicate effectively within different groups of people is an important aspect of social development and continues to be built upon over the years.

For example, talking o an elderly grandparent requires different skills from talking to a brother, sister or school friend.

Communication occurs in a range of formats including verbal, written, body language and sign language.

Communicating effectively in all required formats is important in ensuring that an individual is effectively understood.

Relationship skills

Relationship skills include knowing how to behave in a relationship and what is expected.

It often requires establishing mutual respect and taking the time to listen to each others point of view.

Behavioural changes as youth transition to adulthood

Peer group is extremely influential: many social experiences that youth encounter are due to their peer group and this continues into adulthood.

The peer group may influence their clothing, style of music, activities they participate in and the formation of their identity.

As individual seeking their own independence, they may spend a majority of their free time with their peers, possibly experimenting with different behaviours within the peer group. Some are considered risky like smoking and alcohol.

Culture and family" may influence the social circle and relationships that people have, the career they choose to pursue, where they live and how they spend their spare time. Youth generally move from being dependent on parents to being largely independent as adults. Learn how to act among different groups and change the way they behave according to the situation.

Social roles and expectation changes as youth transition to adulthood

Greater independence and a wider range of social experiences contribute to the development of more complex social roles. For example:

Many youth will grain paid employment for the first time as they transition to adulthood which develops the role of employee.

Intimate relationship (boyfriend or girlfriend role)

Greater responsibility for heir own actions may promote an increase in the complexity of social roles already played, such as son, daughter, student.

Communication skills changes

Types of interactions that occur change as youth are given greater freedom and treated more like adults and as a result, their communication skills are further developed.

Individuals often communicate in a number of different ways and the use of the internet, mobile phones and social media can significantly influence how youth communicate with friends and learn about the world.

The nature of relationships changes during this time as many peer groups include members of the opposite sex.

This can further develop communication skills and provide individuals with opportunities to experience new types of relationships.

As youth transition to adulthood, they often experience a range of more intimate relationships.

Relationship skills changes as youth transition to adulthood

In ganging greater independence, youth often learn that they are responsible for their own actions, decisions and consequences and as a result, young people often question more things, and this can contribute to conflict with their parents or other caregivers as up until this point, parents have often made most of the decisions for their child.

During youth, relationships with parents are vital social roles and managing health and development is often reorganised in such a way that both the child and parent have a say in decision making.

As a result of this struggle (and the other changes that youth experience, such as identity formation, social changes and puberty,0 youth may disagree with parents more often, which can lead o escalating conflict

However, most people enter adulthood with a deeper understanding of their parents and vice versa.

Many individuals will experience their first intimate relationship with anther person as they transition to adulthood, and some will experience their first sexual relationship.

New skills, such as conflict resolution and compromise are learned and/or developed as a result go these relationships.

Towards the end of the youth stage and into adulthood, the individual will usually have developed a clearer sexual identity and may be looking for a serious relationship.

Emotional development

Occurs as individuals experience the full range of emotions and learn ways to appropriately express emotions

Resilience develops as individuals experience the range of emotions, and is a key component of emotional development.

Self concept is also a part of emotional development that relates to how an individual sees themselves.

includes four major aspects:

1. developing self concept- how a person sees themselves

2. Experiencing the full range of emotions

3. Learning appropriate ways of expressing and communicating emotions.

4. Building resilience- the ability to recover from misfortune and negative events.

Experiencing the full range of emotions

As individuals develop, they experience a greater range of emotions.

First emotions that can be recognised by infants include joy, anger, sadness and fear.

As children begin to develop a sense of self, they experience more complex emotions, such as shyness, embarrassment, shame, guilt and pride. Young children often experience basic emotions such as happiness and anger, and often only experience on at a time

As they develop emotionally, children realise that they can experience multiple emotions at once.

For example, feeling both happy and sad when school holidays come to an end.

older children also begin to identify different emotions and learn appropriate ways of responding to them.

Learning appropriate ways of expressing emotions

As individuals develop emotionally, they become more equipped at expressing emotions in an appropriate manner.

Those who are more emotionally developed are better able to control the way in which they express their feelings.

This is why toddlers, rather than adults, are more likely to throw temper tantrums when they do not get their own way.

Desire, guilt and jealousy are common emotions that people express in various ways.

Learning to accept the things they cannot change and focusing energy on the things they can change is a sign of achievement in this area, as it influences the manner in which people express the emotions they experience. eg. instead of crying at not being selected for the soccer team, a person can direct this energy into training harder in order to have a better chance of selection next time. It takes time to develop appropriate ways of responding to emotions.

Emotional changes as youth transition to adulthood

As with social and physical development, the emotional changes that occur during youth are significant. Because of all the changes young people go through as they transition to adulthood, the way they view themselves and how they deal with these feelings may also change.

Experiencing the full rage of emotions

As the body matures so does the mind, and youth might seek emotional independence.

Eg. they might try to solve their own problems instead of consulting their parents.

This may lead to feelings of satisfaction if they succeed of despair if they fail.

Experiencing these emotions can encourage the individual to take more responsibility for their actions and provide ways to accept emotions- both positive and negative- that occur as a result of this responsibility (eg guilt, remorse, happiness, fulfilment)

As the nature of relationships changes, young people may also seek intimacy and affection within those relationships. They might experience emotions such as love and lust and learn ways to express them appropriately.

Resilience

relates to the ability to effectively deal with adverse or negative events that occur throughout life.

Such events inc the death of a loved one, relationship breakdown, financial stress, conflict with family and friends, job loss and job insecurity.

Individuals will use a variety of coping strategies to deal with these

Developing coping strategies assists in building resilience

Learning the skills necessary to become resilient is a key component of emotional development.

Coping strategies to build resilience

Taking time out for relaxation- leisure activities eg socialising exercise and rest

Meditation- clarity and calmness of the mind, reduce stress

Setting goals- allows individual to achieve success and work towards dealing with aspects of life that may sometimes seem overwhelming.

Talking to others:

Other people are a great resource for putting issues in perspective and providing alternative wats of viewing life events. Allows individuals to express how they are feeling.

Maintaining positive self talk- relates to the inner voice in a persons mind that says things they don't necessarily say out loud. Self talk can be positive or negative.

Building resilience

As life experiences and knowledge develop, the transition to adulthood is often marked by greater resilience.

The coping strategies that are first developed early in life are built upon, contributing to the greater level of resilience experienced by most adults compared with children.

Eg. a young person may be able to use positive self-talk to help them overcome their disappointment at not getting the first part-time job they have applied for.

The level of resilience will usually continue to develop throughout adulthood.

Intellectual development

Refers to the increase in complexity of processes in the brain, such as thought, knowledge and memory. Occurs as a result of the changing processes that occur within the brain and the increasing complexity of the brain

Although many aspects of intellectual development occur in the younger years, intellectual development continues throughout the lifespan as people learn new skills associated with pursuing careers, raising children, becoming grandparents or taking up hobbies.

Knowledge and memory

Relates to the range of information and concepts an individual is familiar with and understands. Knowledge becomes more complex as people develop intellectually.

The longer a person has been developing intellectually, the more opportunities they have to gain knowledge.

Memory relates to the ability to retain and recall information.

Memory abilities change throughout the lifespan and can decline in the latter part of adulthood.

using the parts of the brain responsible for memory can help to promote a good memory in late adulthood.

Language

Knowledge of language and the way it can be used develops continually over the human lifespan.

Within months, babies can distinguish between sounds and gain to understand what is being said to them.

In time, they will learn to speak themselves and their use of words and sentences will continue to develop into adulthood.

Some people are bilingual, which can further develop the parts of the brain responsible for the production of speech and knowledge of language.

Thought patterns and problem solving

The way an individual thinks changes as they develop, from concrete to abstract thought.

Abstract thought relates to the ability to think about concepts and ideas rather than just the physical objects you can see (concrete thought).

In the early stages of the lifespan, individuals can only think in concrete ways. As they develop intellectually, they can consider concepts and situations not encountered before.

As abstract thought develops, they will begin to notice the patterns that exist in the formation of numbers.

Problem-solving relates to finding away from the current state to the desired goal when no clear path exists.

Creativity and imagination

Relate to thinking in new ways. Both creativity and imagination creativity and imagination can be developed by exposure to many different experienced including books, music and other people. As individuals develop, imagination becomes more related to artistic pursuits, problem-solving and forming life dreams and desires.

Intellectual changes as youth transition to adulthood

During youth, physiological changes occur in the brain and in the way that the young person perceives problems.

These changes result in significant advances in intellectual development.

Attention

the act or power of carefully thinking about, listening to, or watching someone or something

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

healthy relationship

Characterized by respect, sharing, trust and support between two people

unhealthy relationship

Relationships in which physical, sexual, psychological, or emotional violence take place.

menarche

the first menstrual period

Ovulation

The process of releasing a mature ovum into the fallopian tube each month

ovum

A mature egg cell