General

'to be' Verbs

be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being, going

Auxiliary Verbs

Help main verb show aspects of tense, time or voice

Precedes main verb

'helping verb'-one that supports the main verb of a sentence.

3 primary auxiliary verbs are 'to be', 'to have', 'to do'

Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Express the possibility, probability, likelihood, or obligation of something

E.g. may/might/must, can/could, shall/should, will/would

Affixation

Morphological pattern

Adding a prefix or suffix to a word

Abbreviation

Morphological pattern

Shortened form of a word

E.g.

Inc., Dr, Mr

Shortening

Morphological pattern

type of abbreviation that involves dropping a part of the word

E.g.

fav, flu

Compounding

Morphological pattern

Joining of 2 words

E.g. Superman, underground

Blending

Morphological pattern

Joins 2 words together and cutting parts off

E.g.

brunch, smog

Backformation

Morphological pattern

Removing of affixes from a word to create a new one

reverse affixation

E.g.

Vax, ressurect

Conversion of Word Class

Morphological pattern

Word changes word class

E.g.

Text

Initialism

Morphological pattern

Abbreviation that pronounces the first letters of each word in a phrase

E.g.

DNA, BTW, BMW

Acronym

Morphological pattern

Same as initialism but you say it like a word

E.g.

NASA, ASAP

Contraction

Morphological pattern

combining of 2 words with a apostrophe

E.g.

Can't, won't

Neologism

Lexicology

Newly coined word, expression or term

E.g.

Blog, Selfie

Borrowing

Lexicology

Taken from another language

E.g.

Cafe, Taco

Commonisation

Lexicology

When a brand name or specific term becomes commonly used to refer to a general class of items or concepts

E.g.

Google, Esky, Bandaid

Nominisation

Lexicology

Process of converting a word, typically verb or adjective into a noun

Allows it to act as a subject, object or complement

Syntactic Patterning

Allows authors to support a function or purpose

Can be used to persuade, demostrate shared knowledge & a close social dist

Listing in particular can be used for efficiency

Parallelism

Syntactic Patterning

Rep of grammatical structures 2 or more times in succession

E.g.

Work hard, stay focused

Syntactic/structural similarity b/w two or more bits of lang

E.g. Have a break have a kitkat

Antithesis

Syntactic Patterning

Presentation of 2 contrasting ideas near another in parallel structures

Creates balance between opposing ideas and to emphasise this contrast

Antithetical phrases can use antonymy to juxtapose the ideas

E.g.

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times

Parallelism but w elements that directly contrast one another

E.g. It was the best of times, it was the worse of times

Listing

Syntactic Patterning

Used to present a series of related ideas, items or elements, usually ina similar grammatical form.

Can provide clarity, create rhythm, emphasise, build an argument

E.g.

reducing cost, increasing efficiency & improving morale

Asyndetic Listing

No conjuctions

E.g. Sam washed our bowls, plates, forks

Effect: Can increase tempo

Makes less of a distinction between each element within the list (as there is no physical separation)

Syndetic Listing

1 conjuction

E.g. Sam washed our bowls, plates and forks

Effect: Can increase formality of the register, as typically viewed as most 'grammatically correct'

Can place emphasis on last item of the list

Polysyndetic Listing

More than 1 conjunction

E.g. Sam washed our bowls and plate and forks

Effect: Distinguishes greater between the elements of the list, due to inherent separation

Can be used to highlight that the list is long

Semantic Patterning

Involves the org & arrangement of meaning or semantic concepts within a text. Can be used to aid w cohesion & coherance & capture and maintain the attention of specific audiences

Elements of Semantic Patterning

figurative lang, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, simile, hyperbole, personification, animation, lexical ambiguitity, puns

Lexical Ambiguity

Occurs when a word has multiple meanings, meaking a sentence unclear or open to more than one interpretation

Can create humour, confusion, wordplay, depending on the context

E.g.

The bat flew out the cave

Oxymoron

Figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction

E.g.

Deafening silence

Phonological Patterning

Set of phonological features in written & spoken texts

Can be used by speakers/writers for fun & express creativity, capture and maintain attention of aud.

Alliteration

Phonological Pattern

Rep of phomemes at beginning of words in a phrase, clause or sentence.

E.g. Pretty practical pants

Often used in marketing to make a slogan catchier and more memorable. Can also give a text more rhythm and make it more engaging and interesting. It can also draw a listeners attention to a certain part of the text and then ask ourselves why are they doing this and relate it to the big picture.

Assonance

Phonological Pattern

Rep of vowel phonemes across phrase, clauses or sentence

E.g.

Fleet of Jeeps down the street

Consonance

Phonological Pattern

Rep of consonant sounds in nearby words

E.g.

Bees in trees buzz with ease

Onomatopoeia

Phonological Pattern

Process of which evocative words are created from the sounds they represent

E.g.

Squawk, rustle

Rhythm

Phonological Pattern

Created when the intonation of a set of words is repeated across 2 or more phrases, clauses or sentences

E.g.

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary.

Rhyme

Phonological Pattern

Rep of similar phonemes at the ends of 2 or more words.

Entails direct manipulation of consonance & assonance in word-final syllables

E.g.

The potato cake tastes fake

Content Words

Nouns

Adjectives

Verbs

Adverbs

Function Words

Prepositions

Determiners

Prosodic Features

VTIPS

Volume

Tempo

Intonation

Pitch

Stress

Indicate:

An attempt to pass/share/hold the floor

Can signify a topic shift or change

Can indicate the emotions of the speaker

Volume

Prosodic feature

How loud something is

Tempo

Speed of speech (fast or slow)

Intonation

The way pitch changes across an utterance

Pitch

How high or low the voice is

Rising/falling pitch

Stress

Changes in volume-how loud/softly & how long/short different syllables r uttered

Used for emphasis

Emphatic stress

Paralinguistic Features

Discourse and pragmatics

Elements that r present in speech but r not in lang

Whispers & Laughter

Paralinguistic vocal effects

Non-Verbal Communication

Paralinguistic Features

Gestures-handshake, highfive

Facial Expressions-smile, furrowed brows

Eye Contact-holding eye contact, avoiding eye contact

Creakiness & Breathiness

Paraliguistic

NOT Vocal effects

Noun Phrase

Operates as a noun 'thing' in a sentence

E.g. The yellow golden retreiver barks loudly

Yellow golden retreiver is the noun phrase, the adjective yellow is a modifier as it modifies the noun golden retreiver

If you can substitute a word of the same word class to see if it is a noun or adjective phrase

E.g. The 'dog' barks loudly.

The 'pink' barks loudly.

Verb Phrase

Acts as a verb

Sometimes multiple verbs form a verb phrase to express the past tense

E.g. He 'could have petted' the dog

Modal, auxiliary, main

Adjective Phrase

Functions as an adjective

E.g. The dog had on a 'spotty pink old' bandana

Adverb Phrase

Modifies anything other than a noun (adjective phrase modifies the noun)

E.g. The dog ran very quickly

Prepositional Phrase

Act in place of adjectives or adverbs

Usually begins w a prep and ends w a noun or noun phrase

The lion sleeps quietly 'underneath the mountain'

Clauses

Smaller unit of sentence that at leasst contain a subject and a verb. If it does not it is a phrase

Independent Clause

Can stand on its own

Dependant Clause

Rely on IC to make sense or be grammatically sound

If joined by a subordinating conjuction, the clause will be classed as dependant, even if you feel as though the info can stand by itself

Sentence Fragments

Do not contain a verb

Are not a sentence

E.g. Good morning

Dog toys for sale

Simple Sentence

Contains a singular independant clause

Look for: 1 verb

E.g. The dog barks loudly beneath the big kitchen table

Compound Sentence

2 IC joined by a coordinating conjunction

FANBOYS

Complex Sentences

At least 1 coordinating & 1 subordinating clause joined by a subordinating conjunction

E.g. I failed because the test was hard

Compound-Complex Sentence

2+coordinating & 1+subordinating clauses joined by their respective conjunctions

E.g. I succeeded because the test was easy and I prepared accordingly

Active Voice

Contains a verb

Ordered: Subject+verb contruction

E.g. Sam washed the dishes

Analysis: Creates a clear link between the person doing the action & what occured

Usually written to describe things in the present

Can think of as inherently 'honest' & straightforward

Most common in informal lang

Passive Voice

The object is written first, the subject is written last

E.g. The dishes were washed by Sam

Analysis: Emphasises first what had happened (front focused)

Places the agent at the end (end-focused)

Agentless Passive

Written in passive voice however, the agent-the thing doing the action-is omitted

E.g. The dishes were washed

Analysis: Does not say who performed the action

Can be obfuscatory (hide the truth)

Figurative Language

Broader catagory to encompass the elements within this dot point

In a technical sense, refers to language we take ‘non-literally’

Usually extensively in novels to create imagery and add ‘style’ to the writing

Metaphor

Describing something, by saying it is something else

E.g. The heart of a lion

Simile

Comparing one thing to another

Like, as

E.g. Heart of a lion

In -group

The ppl within a social group that have a shared linguistic knowledge & understanding

Out-group

The ppl outside a specific social group, that r typically unfamiliar w the intricacies & nuances of an in-group slang or lang

Adverbial

Is a prepositional phrase giving information about time, manner, or place

E.g. “in the afternoon”

Starts with prep ‘in’

Gives info abt the time