PSYC 105: Long-Term Memory P2 Flashcard Terms

Meaning is Critical to Successful Memory Encoding

Effective memory encoding requires processing information in a meaningful way, connecting new content to existing knowledge or familiar associations. Holding information in working memory alone is insufficient; fostering meaningful connections enhances the likelihood of accurate storage and future retrieval.

Elaboration

Elaboration involves attaching meaningful context to new information by linking it to what you already know or visualizing it. This process deepens the understanding of the material, facilitating stronger memory retention and easier recall in the future.

Context-Dependent Memory

Context-dependent memory posits that retrieval is more effective when the environment during learning matches that during recall. Studying in the same location where one will take an exam acts as a contextual cue, enhancing the likelihood of successfully recalling the studied material.

Spreading Activation

Spreading activation is a cognitive mechanism where the activation of one memory triggers related memories. For example, thinking of a 'dog' may lead to the activation of associated concepts like 'bone,' 'bark,' and 'walk.' This interconnectedness is crucial for accessing related memories within semantic memory networks.

Priming

Priming is an implicit memory phenomenon wherein exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another. For instance, hearing the word 'doctor' can facilitate the recognition of the word 'nurse,' as the brain has been prepared or 'primed' by the prior exposure.

Explicit Memory

Explicit memory refers to the conscious recall of facts and events, where individuals intentionally retrieve information. Examples include remembering personal experiences, like one's phone number or significant events, such as a birthday celebration.

Implicit Memory

Implicit memory is characterized by unconscious recall methods affecting behavior without awareness. For instance, riding a bike or playing a musical instrument reflects skills learned through practice, performed automatically without deliberate thought about how to execute them.

Durability of Implicit Memory

Implicit memories, such as learned motor skills or conditioned responses, tend to be more durable and longer-lasting compared to explicit memories. Even in cases of amnesia, implicit memories can remain intact, demonstrating their resilience despite the loss of explicit memories.

Episodic Memory

Episodic memory involves recollection of personal experiences or specific events. These memories are linked to particular times and contexts, such as recalling a birthday party or a memorable vacation, providing a rich contextual framework for retrieval.

Semantic Memory

Semantic memory encompasses knowledge of facts and general information not associated with specific personal experiences. Examples include knowing that Paris is the capital of France or understanding concepts like gravity, representing a broader understanding of the world.

Stability of Semantic and Episodic Memory

Semantic memories are generally more stable and durable over time compared to episodic memories, which are more susceptible to forgetting. This stability arises because semantic memories are not tethered to specific temporal or contextual events, aiding retention.

Memory Consolidation

Memory consolidation is the neurological process that transforms initially fragile memories into more stable forms over time. This involves the strengthening of memory traces and the formation of robust neural connections within the brain, enhancing resistance to forgetting.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve illustrates that memory retention diminishes rapidly after learning, particularly within the initial hours and days; however, as time progresses, the rate at which information is forgotten slows down, resulting in more stable, retained memories.

Neurological Change (Systems Consolidation)

As memories age, they undergo neurological changes that embed them deeper within stable neural networks, reducing vulnerability to interference. Older memories are less likely to be erased by new information, indicating a shift toward greater memory stability.

Context Stability in Older Memories

Older memories are frequently associated with stable environments and contexts, facilitating easier retrieval. In contrast, newer memories may lack these established connections, rendering them more vulnerable to being forgotten.

Purpose of Forgetting

Forgetting serves an adaptive purpose by allowing individuals to prioritize recent and relevant memories, helping to maintain an efficient memory system. This process prevents cognitive overload, enabling focus on essential tasks and information.

Retrograde Amnesia

Retrograde amnesia is characterized by an inability to recall memories from prior to a specific incident, such as a brain injury or trauma. An example includes someone who, after a car accident, can no longer remember events that took place just before it.

Anterograde Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to form new episodic memories following a traumatic event. Individuals affected by this condition cannot remember new information or experiences that occur after the onset of the amnesia, although past memories often remain intact.

Vulnerability of Recent Memories in Amnesia

Recent memories are typically more fragile and prone to disruption, making them easier to forget. However, through the process of memory consolidation, these memories can become more robust and resistant to interference as time progresses.

Decay Theory of Forgetting

Decay theory posits that memories diminish over time without active rehearsal or retrieval, explaining some instances of forgetting. Nevertheless, this theory does not encompass all scenarios, as certain memories can still be accessed without consistent review.

Retroactive Interference

Retroactive interference occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the recall of previously learned information. An example is when learning a new phone number makes it increasingly difficult to remember an old number.

Proactive Interference

Proactive interference is a phenomenon where older memories disrupt the encoding of new information. For example, when a person attempts to memorize a new address, recalling an old address may hinder their ability to remember the new one.

Evidence for Interference

Research in cognitive psychology has shown that memories can be intact yet inaccessible due to interference. An illustration of this is when individuals are reintroduced to previously forgotten information and are able to recall it, despite not being able to remember it initially.

Spacing Effect

The spacing effect refers to the principle that learning is enhanced when study sessions are distributed over time, as opposed to being concentrated into a single extended study session. This approach promotes better memory retention by incorporating breaks that allow the brain to consolidate the learned material.

Massed vs. Spaced Practice

Massed practice is characterized by studying the same material in one lengthy, uninterrupted session, while spaced practice consists of studying the same content across several sessions, with breaks in between. Research supports that spaced practice typically yields better long-term retention outcomes.

Testing Effect

The testing effect is the phenomenon whereby taking tests can not only assess memory but also significantly enhance memory retention. This occurs as the process of testing reinforces memory traces, resulting in easier recall of the information in the future.

Spitzer’s Study (1939)

In his 1939 study, Spitzer discovered that repeated testing substantially enhances long-term retention compared to engaging in additional study sessions. This finding underscores the effectiveness of testing in strengthening memory recall over time.

Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Study

The study conducted by Roediger and Karpicke in 2006 highlighted that repeated testing facilitates improved long-term retention more effectively than restudying. This research emphasizes the importance of utilizing tests as a valuable educational tool.

Spaced Learning and Repeated Testing

Combining spaced learning with repeated testing has been identified as an effective strategy for enhancing memory. The integration of these methods helps reinforce and solidify memories, making it more likely for individuals to recall information over time.

Constructive Memory

Constructive memory is the concept that memory is not a mere passive recording of experiences. Instead, it is an active, reconstructive process where details can be added, modified, or omitted based on an individual's expectations and prior knowledge, which can sometimes lead to inaccuracies.

Bartlett’s Research (1932)

In 1932, Bartlett's research revealed that individuals tend to alter their recollections to create coherence and align them with their existing knowledge. This indicates that memory acts as a reconstructive process rather than a precise reproduction of past events; for instance, study participants often adjusted unfamiliar details to conform to their expectations.

Intrusion Errors

Intrusion errors occur when elements that were not part of the original experience are mistakenly included in a recollection. For example, an individual might remember details that didn't actually happen in an event, such as a plausible action or object that, while inconsistent with the event, seems likely.

False Memories

False memories are recollections of events that did not take place. These inaccuracies can arise from the reconstructive nature of human memory, wherein recollections are altered or fabricated. A classic example is the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, where individuals often mistakenly remember the word 'sleep,' despite it not appearing on the original list, due to its strong associations with other words.

Misinformation Effect

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory of a previous event becomes distorted due to misleading information provided after the event. For instance, if someone is asked about 'broken glass' after witnessing an accident, even if there was none, they might incorrectly remember seeing it, showcasing how subsequent information can skew memory.

Source Monitoring

Source monitoring is the cognitive process by which individuals attempt to determine the origin or context of their learned information. Errors in this process can lead to false memories, such as mistakenly identifying whether a memory derived from a dream, an actual experience, or another person's account; for example, an individual might confuse imagined scenarios with real events.

Emotional Memory

Emotional memories are often more vivid and easier to retrieve because emotional experiences enhance the process of memory consolidation. The amygdala, a brain region that processes emotions, works closely with the hippocampus to strengthen these memories. Despite their intensity, emotional memories are also subject to distortion over time.

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb memories are extremely vivid and detailed recollections of where a person was and what they were doing during highly emotional, significant events, such as the attacks on September 11, 2001. Although these memories are marked by their vividness, they can still change and become inaccurate over time.

Accuracy of Flashbulb Memories

While flashbulb memories are characterized by their intense detail, they are not exempt from distortion. Research shows that people often express high confidence in the accuracy of their flashbulb memories, yet these memories can evolve over time. For instance, accounts of a traumatic event like 9/11 can vary when individuals are reinterviewed.

Recovered Memories

Recovered memories refer to recollections of past experiences, often traumatic, that were initially inaccessible but later come to mind. These recollections may emerge with the assistance of therapy or suggestive techniques, leading to debates about their reliability. For example, an individual might regain memory of a childhood trauma during therapy, but the truthfulness of such memories may be contested.

False Memories (again)

False memories can be implanted through suggestive techniques, leading individuals to genuinely believe they have experienced events that never actually transpired. An illustrative study by Loftus and Pickrell (1995) found that 31% of participants formed vivid false memories of being lost in a shopping mall, even though that occurrence had not taken place. This underscores the susceptibility of memory to manipulation.

Loftus and Pickrell’s Study (1995)

Loftus and Pickrell conducted a study in 1995 where they found that 31% of participants developed detailed false memories about events, such as being lost in a shopping mall, despite those events never happening. This study effectively highlights how easily false memories can be implanted through suggestion and repeated inquiries.