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By the late 19th century, how many Chinese mestizos were there compared to Spanish mestizos?

Over 200,000 Chinese mestizos vs. around 35,000 Spanish mestizos.

What were the main occupations of Spanish mestizos vs. Chinese mestizos?

Spanish mestizos "\rightarrow" military and arts; Chinese mestizos "\rightarrow" trade and commerce.

Where did Chinese mestizos become prominent landholders and middlemen?

In Central Luzon, Cebu, and Iloilo.

What policy change helped increase Chinese trade activity?

Renewed Chinese immigration with eased restrictions.

By the late 19th century, how many Chinese mestizos were there compared to Spanish mestizos?

Over 200,000 Chinese mestizos vs. around 35,000 Spanish mestizos.

What were the main occupations of Spanish mestizos vs. Chinese mestizos?

Spanish mestizos "\rightarrow" military and arts; Chinese mestizos "\rightarrow" trade and commerce.

Where did Chinese mestizos become prominent landholders and middlemen?

In Central Luzon, Cebu, and Iloilo.

What policy change helped increase Chinese trade activity?

Renewed Chinese immigration with eased restrictions.

How did Spanish and Chinese mestizos differ in their focus?

Spanish mestizos "\rightarrow" landownership & government; Chinese mestizos "\rightarrow" business & commerce.

How did Chinese mestizos blend identity and business?

They mixed Spanish Catholicism with Chinese business skills, becoming urbanized and hispanized.

In the 19th century, who did Chinese mestizos begin to identify with more?

They identified more with the indios.

What was their contribution to Filipino society?

Spread of money economy, Hispanization, and modern Filipino culture.

What class tensions fueled the revolution?

Religious landlords, mestizo tenants, and indio laborers.

Why did many Chinese convert to Catholicism?

For economic benefits like tax breaks, land, and legal protection.

Was conversion always sincere?

No, many reverted to old practices after gaining benefits.

Give one example of mixed loyalty among Catholic Chinese.

In 1603, Juan Suntay led a rebellion, while Juan Bautista de Vera acted as mediator, and others defended Spain.

Who did many Chinese support during the Seven Years
’ War (1762–1764)?

They supported the English, leading to Spanish punishment later.

Why was intermarriage common between Chinese and natives?

There were few Chinese women in the Philippines.

When and why was Binondo founded?

In 1594, as a settlement for Catholic Chinese merchants under Dominican influence.

What community groups existed in Binondo?

Three gremios: Chinese, mestizos, and indios.

Which other mission settlement was created for Catholic Chinese?

Santa Cruz (1619–1634).

How did mestizos support Spain in 1639?

They fought against the Chinese rebellion.

What military unit did wealthy mestizos help form in the 1800s?

The Regimiento del Real Príncipe.

What identity had formed by the mid-18th century?

A hispanized Catholic mestizo identity.

What were common restrictions imposed on Chinese immigrants in the Philippines before the late 19th century?

High taxes, residential limits (e.g., Parian), and periodic expulsions, often driven by fear of large Chinese populations.

In the Spanish colonial Philippines, who were the "indios"?

The native inhabitants of the Philippine islands, distinct from the Spanish and Chinese mestizo populations.

What was the significance of the "gremios" in Binondo?

They were ethnically segregated administrative and tax-collecting units for Chinese, mestizos, and indios, reinforcing social hierarchy and control.

How did Chinese mestizos contribute to the rise of the Filipino middle class?

Their wealth from trade and landownership allowed them to educate their children, who then formed an intellectual class (ilustrados) that led nationalist movements.